Introduction

Abstract

Despite decades of language teaching and research, in the majority of EFL contexts, English learning remains largely characterized by ‘relative failure’ (Skehan, 1996, p. 16) due to the inability of many learners to communicate competently in English once their formal schooling ends (e.g. Gobel et al., 2013; Yoshida, 2013). Moreover, many if not most learners in Japan, for example, leave school not only with a lack of confidence in their abilities but also a strong dislike for learning English (Benesse, 2007, cited in Yoshida, 2009). Similar patterns of low confidence, low motivation, and low ability can be seen in numerous contexts in Asia, with connections being drawn to a lack of interaction (Wu et al., 2011). Rightly or wrongly, public perceptions and beliefs toward English ability and English learning in many Asian contexts remain stereotypically negative, as reflected in if not compounded by mainstream news media, with headlines such as ‘I no speak English’ (Thanh Nien News, 2011, December 26), ‘Test scores don’t guarantee English skills’ (Yoon, The Korean Herald, 2012, February 5), and ‘English fluency hopes rest on an education overhaul’ (Clavel, The Japan Times, 2014, January 5).