Abstract
Behind West German policy towards the Portuguese dictatorship between 1968 and 1974 lies the story of how the emblematic governments led by social democrat Chancellor Willy Brandt came to deal with Western Europe’s oldest authoritarian regime and most persistent colonial empire. This book examines the wide-ranging, often contradictory motivations and actions that shaped this policy, as well as its implications for our understanding of the evolution of each state’s diplomacy. By shedding new light on the relationship between the two countries, this study can hopefully contribute to a more informed and nuanced discussion of both Germany’s and Portugal’s recent history.
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Notes
For an overview of these 1968 dynamics, see C. Fink, P. Gassert, and D. Junker (eds) (1998) 1968: The World Transformed (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press).
M. C. Morgan (2010) ‘The Seventies and the Rebirth of Human Rights’ in N. Ferguson (ed.) The Shock of the Global: the 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), pp. 243–4.
O. A. Westad (2005) The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 207–18.
For a more detailed overview of this period, see C. Hacke (2003) Die Aussenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Von Konrad Adenauer bis Gerhard Schröder (Berlin: Ullstein), pp. 63–83;
H. Haftendorn (2006) Coming of Age: German Foreign Policy since 1945 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield), pp. 9–56;
G. Schöllgen (2004) Die Aussenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart, 3rd edn (Munich: Beck), pp. 18–41.
For an analysis of the theoretical postulates behind Lisbon’s colonial policy, see F. Rosas (1995) ‘Estado Novo, Império e Ideologia Imperial’, Revista de História das Ideias, 17, pp. 19–32. For an overview of the Portuguese decolo-nising conflicts, including Lisbon’s diplomatic strategy, see
O. Udokang (1982) ‘Portuguese African Policy and the Colonial Liberation Movement’, Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, 8(2), pp. 97–124,
N. Macqueen (1997) The Decolonization of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire (London: Longman),
A. C. Pinto (2001) O Fim do Império Português: a Cena Internacional, a Guerra Colonial, e a Descolonização, 1961–1975 (Lisbon: Livros Horizonte), and
M. Thomas (2008) ‘Contrasting Patterns of Decolonization: Belgian and Portuguese Africa’ in M. Thomas, B. Moore, and L. J. Butler (eds) Crises of Empire: Decolonization and Europe’s Imperial States, 1918–1975 (London: Hodder Education), pp. 393–410.
J. Darwin (2001) ‘Diplomacy and Decolonization’ in K. Fedorowich and M. Thomas (eds) International Diplomacy and Colonial Retreat (London: Frank Cass Publishers), pp. 14–16.
P. A. Oliveira (2007) Os Despojos da Aliança: A Grã-Bretanha e a Questão colonial Portuguesa 1945–1975 (Lisbon: Edições Tinta-da-China), pp. 50–1.
Besides being a founding member of OEEC and OECD, Portugal also became a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1960 and of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1962. See J. C. Neves (1996) ‘Portuguese Post-war Growth: a Global Approach’, in N. Crafts and G. Toniolo (eds) Economic Growth in Europe since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 340.
Quoted from A.F. Nogueira (2000), Salazar, O Último Combate (1964–1970), vol. VI (Oporto: Editora Civilização), p. 8.
As Armando Marques Guedes points out in his foreword to A. M. Fonseca (2007) A Força das Armas: o Apoio da República Federal da Alemanha ao Estado Novo (1958–1968) (Lisbon: Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros), p. 11.
Fonseca, Força das Armas, pp. 23–34; T. Schroers (1998) Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: die Entwicklung der Beziehungen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zur Portugiesischen Republik 1949–1976 (PhD dissertation, Hamburg: Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg), pp. 23–32.
A. J. Telo (1994) ‘As Guerras de África e a Mudança nos Apoios Internacionais de Portugal’ Revista História das Ideias, 16, pp. 347–69.
U. Engel (2000) Die Afrikapolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949–1999: Rollen und Identitäten, (Leipzig: LIT), pp. 230–2.
For a comparative analysis between the programme of Kiesinger’s government and that of its successor, see J. Dannenberg (2008) The Foundations of Ostpolitik: The Making of the Moscow Treaty between West Germany and the USSR (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 67–130.
G. Niedhart (2004) ‘Ostpolitik: Phases, Short-Term Objectives, and Grand Design’, GHI Bulletin Supplement, 1, pp. 118–36.
T. G. Ash (1993) In Europe’s Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (New York: Random House).
J. Suri (2003) Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press), pp. 216–26.
H. Haftendorn (2006) ‘German Ostpolitik in a Multilateral Setting’, in H. Haftendorn, G. H. Soutou, S. F. Szabo, and S. F. Wells Jr (eds) The Strategic Triangle: France, Germany, and the United States in the Shaping of the New Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Centre Press), pp. 209–27.
M. E. Sarotte (2008) ‘The Frailties of Grand Strategies: A Comparison of Détente and Ostpolitik’ in F. Logevall and A. Preston (eds) Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969–1977 (New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 146–63.
S. Lorenzini (2009) ‘Globalising Ostpolitik’, Cold War History, 9(2), p. 232.
Hacke, Aussenpolitik, pp. 188–94; B. Marshall (1997) Willy Brandt: A Political Biography (Basingstoke: Macmillan), pp. 77–96;
D. Sassoon (1996) One Hundred Years of Socialism: the West European Left in the Twentieth Century (London: I.B. Tauris Publishers), p. 318; Schöllgen, Aussenpolitik, pp. 111–37.
For two key interpretations of the motivations and evolution of Marcelismo, including Caetano’s rule, see F. Rosas (1999) ‘O Marcelismo ou a Falência da Política de Transição no Estado Novo’ in J. M. B. Brito (ed.) Do Marcelismo ao Fim do Império (Lisbon: Círculo de Leitores), pp. 15–59, and
V. P. Valente (2002) Marcello Caetano: as Desventuras da Razão (Lisbon: Gótica). The former argues that Caetano sought to truly reform the regime, but was unable to go further because of his failure to solve the colonial conflict. The latter denies Caetano’s intention of taking the reforms much further than he did. For a nuanced, if highly theoretical, interpretation that falls in between these two, see
J. B. Macedo (1995) Marcelo Caetano e Marcelismo (Lisbon: Colibri). For a detailed analysis of the implications of the constitutional revision, see also
R. A. Carvalho (2004) ‘O Marcelismo à Luz da Revisão Constitucional de 1971’ in F. Rosas, P. A. Oliveira (eds) A Transição Falhada. O Marcelismo e o Fim do Estado Novo (1968–1974) (Lisbon: Círculo de Leitores), pp. 27–89.
K. Maxwell (1995) The Making of Portuguese Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
H. R. Schneider (1974) Walter Scheel: Handeln & Wirken eines Liberalen Politikers (Stuttgart/Bonn: Aktuell).
L. Xavier (2010) Rui Patrício: A Vida Conta-se Inteira (Lisbon: Temas e Debates), pp. 129–30.
Most notably, A. J. Telo (1996) ‘A Europa e a Questão Alemã: Uma Visão de Longo Prazo’, Política Internacional, 13, pp. 141–4.
H. L. Menar (1979) Bilateralismus und Multilateralismus in der Außenpolitik Portugals seit 1945 (PhD dissertation, Hamburg: University of Hamburg), pp. 330–6; Schroers, Außenpolitik, pp. 194–5.
G. Grohs (1978) ‘Die Unterstützung der Portugiesischen Afrika-Politik durch die Bundesregierung’, in H. Bley, R. Tetzlaff (eds) (1978) Afrika und Bonn: Versäumnisse und Zwänge Deutscher Afrika-Politik (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag), pp. 70–87.
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Lopes, R. (2014). Introduction. In: West Germany and the Portuguese Dictatorship, 1968–1974. Security, Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137402080_1
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