Abstract
“We charge that the Board of Education of the City of Chicago operates a public school system that is, in fact and by its own statistics, segregated and discriminatory on a racial basis and that the education offered Chicago’s Negro children is not only separate from, but inferior to that offered white children.”1 In 1965, the Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO), a coalition of civil rights, civic and religious groups, accused the Chicago Board of Education of willful segregation of its students in a compelling and detailed Title VI complaint sent to the United States Office of Education in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW). The federal government created the 1964 Civil Rights Act to end segregation, especially in the South. Title VI of the act stipulated that programs or activities receiving federal funding could not discriminate against individuals based on race, color, or national origin. This empowered HEW to withhold federal funds from federally funded groups for noncompliance.
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Notes
Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, “The Chicago Title VI Complaint to H.E.W.” Integrated Education 3 (December 1965-January 1966): 10.
Gary Orfield, The Reconstruction of Southern Education: The Schools and the 1964 Civil Rights Act (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1969), 151–207.
For more details, see Alan B. Anderson and George W. Pickering, Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986).
See Mike Royko, Boss: Mayor Richard J. Daley of Chicago (New York: Plume, 1971)
Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor, American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley, His Battle for Chicago and the Nation (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000)
Roger Biles, Richard J. Daley: Politics, Race, and the Governing of Chicago (Dekalb: Northern Illinois Press, 1995)
William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992)
Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Chicago (Chicago: Urban Research Press, 1981).
Cohen and Taylor, American Pharaoh, 10–11; Lilia Fernandez, Brown in the Windy City: Mexicans and Puerto Ricans in Postwar Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012); Jacobi Williams, From the Bullet to the Ballot: The Illinois Chapter of the Black Panther Party and Racial Coalition Politics in Chicago, 31;Royko, Boss.
Center for National Policy Review, Justice Delayed and Denied, HEW and Northern School Desegregation (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America School of Law, 1974).
See Dean J. Kotlowski, Nixon’s Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001)
Lawrence J. McAndrews, “Missing the Bus: Gerald Ford and School Desegregation,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 27 (Fall 1997). Retrieved February 11, 2013, from http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-20223418/missing-the-bus-gerald-ford-and-school-deseg regation
Drew S. Days, “Turning Back the Clock: The Reagan Administration and Civil Rights,” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 19 (1984) 346.
Brian J. Kelly, “Half of Blacks and Latinos Reject Busing,” Chicago Sun-Times, December 30, 1979, 8
Brian J. Kelly, “Access to Excellence Plan Get a Failing Grade,” Chicago Sun-Times, January 2, 1980, 1.
Ronald P. Formisano, Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004)
Joyce A. Baugh, The Detroit School Busing Case: Milliken v. Bradley and the Controversy over Desegregation (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2011)
Joseph Radelet, “Stillness at Detroit’s Racial Divide: A Perspective of Detroit’s School Desegregation Court Order, 1970–1989,” Urban Review 23 (September 1991): 173–190
Jerald E. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002)
Gregory S. Jacobs, Getting Around Brown: Desegregation, Development, and the Columbus Public Schools (Columbus: Ohio State University, 1998)
Jack Dougherty, More than One Struggle: The Evolution of Black School Reform in Milwaukee (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004)
Steven J. L Taylor, Desegregation in Boston and Buffalo: The Influence of Local Leaders (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998).
Tracy L. Steffes, School, Society, and State: A New Education to Govern Modern America, 1980–1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 6–7.
Adam R. Nelson, The Elusive Ideal: Equal Educational Opportunity and the Federal Role in Boston’s Public Schools, 1950–1985 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780–1960 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983)
Derrick Bell, Silent Covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the Unfulfilled Hopes for Racial Reform (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004)
James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
Alan B. Anderson and George W. Pickering, Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986)
James R. Ralph Jr., Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)
John L. Rury, “Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago’s Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education,” History of Education Quarterly 39 (Spring 1999)
Dionne Danns, Something Better for Our Children: Black Organizing in Chicago Public Schools, 1963–1971 (New York: Routledge, 2003).
Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940–1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983)
Amanda I. Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).
See Michael W. Homel, Down from Equality: Black Chicagoans and the Public Schools, 1920–1941 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 133–178.
“Request for Reform of Our School System,” Cyrus Hall Adams Papers, box 1–4, Chicago History Museum; James Sullivan, “School Demands Listed: Boycotters Want Willis Backer Out,” Chicago Tribune, October 21, 1963, 1–2.
Paul West, “City School Board Hears Bias Protest: CORE Group Holds Sit-in,” Chicago Tribune, July 11, 1963, 1–2
Paul West, “Police Remove 10 from Office of School. Board: Daley Supports Action Asked by Roddewig,” Chicago Tribune, July 19, 1963, 1–2
Betty Flynn, “The Battle of Ben Willis: A Chicago Dilemma,” Renewal (March 1965): 4; Ralph, Northern Protest, 19.
Benjamin C. Willis, “Statement to the Education and Labor Committee House of Representatives,” July 27, 1965
Philip M. Hauser, “Testimony on De Facto Segregation in the Chicago Public Schools, before the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives,” July 27, 1965
James Yuenger, “U.S. Queries Willis on School Bias Study,” Chicago Tribune, September 3, 1965, 1, 4.
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© 2014 Dionne Danns
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Danns, D. (2014). Introduction. In: Desegregating Chicago’s Public Schools. Historical Studies in Education. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137357588_1
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