Abstract
The great American liberal President Seth Low of Columbia University wrote to his old friend the British liberal James Bryce in July 1900 that: ‘[t]he cen-tury is coming to its end here among many dark clouds, bloodshed, hatred of nations, a general lowering of the ideas which you and I were bought up forty years ago to cherish’.1 They both understood that the Western civilization they knew and loved was being severely challenged by modernity. The ‘Great War’ of 1914–1918 proved to be its nemesis, a conflict that it is widely accepted bought about a seminal shift in power and influence away from the ‘old’ world of Europe and towards the ‘new’ of the Americas, and especially towards the United States of America itself. This chapter will discuss how even in the supposedly golden period of European dominance that ended in 1914 the balance of power was already swinging from the European shore of the Atlantic towards the American.
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Notes
For a discussion of the British nineteenth century view on this see: D. Bell, The Idea of a Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
W.K. Hazelden, Daily Mirror, 4 July 1905: British Cartoon Archive, University of Kent, Canterbury.
A. de Tocqueville, The Ancien Regime and the French Revolution (London: Penguin, 2008).
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Z. Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (London: Polity, 1991), p. xiii.
For the United States’ imperial designs before 1900 see R. Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World, 1600–1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006);
W. LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad since 1750 (New York: Norton, 1989)
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Quoted by R. Shattuck, The Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant-Garde in France: 1885 to World War I (London: Jonathan Cape, 1969), p. xv.
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C. Andrew, Théophile Delcassé and the Making of the Entente Cordiale: A Reappraisal of French Foreign Policy, 1898–1905 (London: Macmillan, 1968),
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Clemenceau was not only friendly with ‘marginal and eccentric figures … extreme radicals’ as he also knew Joseph Chamberlain: D. R. Watson, ‘Clemenceau’s Contacts with England’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2006, pp. 715–730, p. 716.
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The best source for British syndicalism before 1914 is B. Holton, British Syndicalism, 1900–1914 (London: Pluto Press, 1976).
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quoting W. James, The Moral Equivalent of War (New York: American Association for International Conciliation, 1910), pp. 6–8.
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M. Dubofsky and F.R. Dulles, Labor in America: A History (8th edn) (London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010).
Of which the most extensive history is by P.S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 4, The Industrial Workers of the World 1905–1917 (New York: International Publishers, 1997).
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See A. Williams, Labour and Russia: The Attitude of the Labour Party to the Soviet Union, 1924–1934 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), pp. 7–8. Henderson’s poem is in the Labour Party archives under HEN/14/3.
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The best overview of this group is by A. May, ‘The Round Table, 1910–1966’, D. Phil, University of Oxford, January 1995. See also P. Kramer, ‘Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and United States Empires, 1880–1910’, The Journal of American History, Vol. 88, 2002, pp. 1315–1353.
For Milner and Curtis see J. Marlowe, Milner: Apostle of Empire (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1976);
L. Curtis, With Lord Milner in South Africa (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1951).
For Philip Kerr/Lord Lothian see P. Roberts (ed.), Lord Lothian and Anglo-American Relations (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters, 2010).
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M. Ceadel, Pacifism in Britain, 1914–1945: The Defining of a Faith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980).
See, for example, L. Ashworth, International Relations and the Labour Party: Intellectuals and Policy Making from 1918–1945 (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007).
B. Porter, Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes towards Colonialism in Africa, 1895–1914, 2nd edition (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007);
G. Claeys, Imperial Sceptics: British Critics of Empire, 1850–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
This next section draws heavily on A. Williams, ‘Norman Angell and his French Contemporaries, 1905–1914’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 21, No. 4, December 2010, pp. 574–592.
N. Angell, The Great Illusion: A Study of the Relation of Military Power in Nations to their Economic and Social Advantage (London: W. Heinemann, 1912).
M. Ceadel, Living the Great Illusion: Sir Norman Angell, 1872–1967 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 66, 75.
Quoted in ibid., pp. 97, 98–103. N. Angell, Patriotism under Three Flags: A Plea for Rationalism in Politics (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1903), and Europe’s Optical Illusion (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton and Kent, 1909).
Ceadel, Living the Great Illusion, pp. 93–94; Esher quoted in L. Ahamed, Lords of Finance: The Bankers Who Broke the World (London: Penguin, 2009), p. 21.
On Esher see also: P. Fraser, Lord Esher: A Political Biography (London: Hart-Davis MacGibbon, 1973),
and; J. Lees-Milne, The Enigmatic Edwardian: The Life of Reginald, 2nd Viscount Esher (London: Sidgwick and Co., 1986).
D.K. Broster, Crouching at the Door: Strange and Macabre Tales (short stories) (London: Wordsworth editions, first pub 1942, 2007). My thanks to Terry Barringer for this gem.
E. Childers, The Riddle of the Sands: A Record of Secret Service (London: Penguin, 2007);
G.T. Chesney, The Battle of Dorking: Reminiscences of a Volunteer (London: Dodo Press, 2008);
H.G. Wells, The War of the Worlds (London: Penguin, 2005);
J. Buchan, The Thirty-Nine Steps (London: Penguin, 2007).
N. Ferguson, The Pity of War (London: Allen Lane, 1998), p. 22, quoting Angell, The Great Illusion, p. 361.
See S. Hazareesingh, Political Traditions in Modern France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
R. Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1980).
P. Drieu La Rochelle, Socialisme fasciste (Paris: Gallimard, 1934), p. 209
quoted in P. Sérant, Le Romantisme fasciste (Paris: Fasquelle, 1959), p. 55.
J. Talmon, Myth of the Nation and the Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarisation in the Twentieth Century (London: Secker and Warburg, 1981).
Again, see Sternhell, La droite révolutionnaire en France; ‘Nicolas Sarkozy se sent “l’héritier” de Jaurès’ Le nouvel Observateur, 13 April 2007. See also J. Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), ‘Péguy’s Frances’, pp. 4–6.
This discussion of Jaurès, Sorel and Péguy also draws heavily on my ‘Norman Angell and his French Contemporaries, 1905–1914’, op. cit. The best biography of Jaurès in English is still H. Goldberg, The Life of Jean Jaurès (New York: Madison, 1962).
The context is best placed by G. Haupt, Socialism and the Great War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972).
J. Jaurès, L’Armée Nouvelle (Paris: Editions Sociales, 1915) and (Paris: Editions 10/18, 1969) with a Foreword by Madeleine Rebérioux, p. 7.
For more on this see L. Lévy (ed.), Jean Jaurès: Anthologie (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1946, 1983), pp. 114–116.
G. Lefranc, Le movement socialiste sous la troisième république (Paris: Petite Bibliothèque Payot, 1977), pp. 102–103.
P. Jackson, Beyond the Balance of Power: France and the Politics of National Security in the Era of the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
For a French appreciation of Mitrany, see G. Devin, ‘Que reste-t-il du fonction-nalisme international? Relire David Mitrany (1888–1975)’, Critique internationale 01/03, no. 38, 2008, pp. 137–152.
L. Bourgeois, Solidarité (Paris: Armand Colin, 1896).
S. Audier, Leon Bourgeois: Fonder la solidarité (Paris: Editions Michalon, 2007), p. 15.
L. Bourgeois, Pour La Société des Nations (Paris: Fasquelle, 1910).
Woolf, International Government. See also P. Wilson, The International Theory of Leonard Woolf A Study in Twentieth Century Idealism (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002);
V. Glendinning, Leonard Woolf: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006).
S. Brodziak and J.-N. Jeanneney, Georges Clemenceau: Correspondance (1858–1929) (Paris: Laffont/Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 2008).
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Williams, A.J. (2014). The Anglo-Saxons and the French: The Build-up to the First World War. In: France, Britain and the United States in the Twentieth Century 1900–1940. Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137315458_2
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