Abstract
I work in a building once occupied by architects. I am told they designed radio telescopes for receiving messages from outer space. It goes without saying that today our concerns are more immediate.
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Notes
Green, J. A. The University of Sheffield. In: Porter, ed. Handbook & Guide to Sheffield: Prepared for the Members of the “British Association for the Advancement of Science,” on the occasion of their visit to Sheffield. Sheffield: J. W. Northend, 1910, p. 152. J. A. Green, M.A., was Professor of Education at the university.
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Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. London: Vintage, 2000 [1980], p. 3.
To pick an example, Henrik Ibsen was giving it a tongue-lashing in 1869. See Ibsen, Henrik. The League of Youth. In: A Doll’s House and Other Plays. London: Penguin, 2003 [1869].
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Gray, John. Enlightenment’s Wake. London: Routledge, 2008, p. 26.
This has not gone unnoticed. As Bowles and Gintis once observed, ‘the educa-tional system legitimates economic inequality by providing an open, [apparently] objective, and ostensibly meritocratic mechanism for assigning individuals to unequal economic positions’. (See Bowles, Samuel and Gintis, Herbert. Schooling in Capitalist America. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2011 [1976], p. 103.)
Haskins, Charles. The Rise of Universities. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1923, pp. 3–4.
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For accounts of the medieval university career and accompanying systems of examination, see Rashdall, Hastings. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages: Volume I. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1895, pp. 433–62;
Rashdall, Hastings. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages: Volume II. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1895, pp. 440–446; Haskins, Rise of Universities. pp. 37–68;
Leff, Gordon. Paris and Oxford Universities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. London: John Wiley and Sons, 1968, pp. 146–60;
Cobban, Alan. The Medieval English Universities: Oxford and Cambridge to c. 1500. Aldershot: Scholar Press, 1988, pp. 161–71.
Carr, Wilfred. Professing Education in a Postmodern Age. Journal of Philosophy of Education 1997; 31(2);
Clark, William. Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research University. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
MacIntyre, Alasdair. Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry. London: Duckworth, 1990, p. 64.
Goddard, Roy and Payne, Mark. Criticality and the practice-based MA. Journal of Education for Teaching 2013, 39(1), p. 127.
If you would prefer to read a more straightforward history of examination, I refer you to: Roach, John. Public Examinations in England 1850–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971;
Montgomery, Robert. Examinations: An Account of their Evolution as Administrative Devices in England. London: Longmans, 1965;
Montgomery, Robert. A New Examination of Examinations. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978.
Bentham, Jeremy. Constituional Code — Volume I. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1830 [1983], p. 310.
Costello, William. The Scholastic Curriculum at Early Seventeenth-Century Cambridge. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1958.
Hoskin, Keith. The Examination, Disciplinary Power and Rational Schooling. History of Education 1979, 8(2), p. 144. The significance attributed to 1792 has been questioned. It has been argued that a certain degree of ‘impression marking’ lasted until exams were finally stabilised in the 1840s.
See Stray, Christopher. The Shift from Oral to Written Examination: Cambridge and Oxford 1700–1900. Assessment in Education 2001, 8(1), p. 41. For my purposes the precise dating of events matters little.
Macaulay, Thomas. Government of India Bill — Ajourned Debate (Second Night) Friday June 24. Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates Third Series CXXVIII. London: Cornelius Buck, 1853, p. 756.
Lindqvist, Sven. ‘Exterminate All the Brutes’. Saharan Journey. London: Granta, 2012.
Victoria, Alexandrina. In: Benson and Esher, ed. The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection of Her Majesty’s Correspondence Between the Years 1831 and 1861. New York: Longmans, Green and Co, 1907, pp. 12–13 (emphasis mine).
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of The Prison. London: Penguin, 1975 [1991], p. 30.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. London: Penguin, 1969 [1883], p. 42.
Peim, Nick. Education, Schooling, Derrida’s Marx and Democracy: Some Fundamental Questions. Studies in Philosophy and Education 2013, 32(2).
The argument that follows draws from: Allen, Ansgar. The Examined Life: On the Formation of Souls and Schooling. American Educational Research Journal 2013, 50(2).
Foucault, Michel. The Subject and Power. In: Dreyfus and Rabinow, ed. Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983, p. 208.
Tröhler, Daniel, Popkewitz, Thomas and Labaree, David. Schooling and the Making of Citizens in the Long Nineteenth Century. New York: Routledge, 2011, p. 20.
Foucault, Michel. Nietzsche, Genealogy, History. In: Faubion, ed,. Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984. Volume 2. London: Penguin, 2000 [1971].
Caruso, Marcelo. Order through the Gaze: A Comparative Perspective of the Construction of Visibility in Monitorial Schooling. Encounters in Education, 2008, 9; Miller, Pavia. Transformations of Patriarchy in the West, 1500–1900. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1998;
Upton, Dell. Lancasterian Schools, Republican Citizenship, and the Spatial Imagination in Early Nineteenth-Century America. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 1996, 55(3).
Curtis, Bruce. Building The Educational State: Canada West, 1836–1871. London, Ontario: The Althouse Press, 1988;
Perry, George. ‘The Grand Regulator’: State Schooling and the Normal-School Idea in Nova Scotia, 1838–1855. Acadiensis, 2003, 32(2).
Rayman, Ronald. Joseph Lancaster’s Monitorial System of Instruction and American Indian Education, 1815–1838. History of Education Quarterly, 1981, 21(4).
Jones, Dave. The genealogy of the urban schoolteacher. In: Ball, ed. Foucault and Education: Disciplines and Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1990.
Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James. Four Periods of Public Education as reviewed in 1832–1839–1846–1862. Brighton: Harvester, 1862 [1973], p. 296.
See, for example: Miller, P. J. Factories, monitorial schools and Jeremy Bentham: The origins of ‘the management syndrome’ in popular education. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 1973, 5(2), p. 10;
Margolis, Eric and Fram, Sheila. Caught Napping: Images of Surveillance, Discipline and Punishment on the Body of the Schoolchild. History of Education, 2007, 36(2), p. 198;
Gore, Jennifer. Disciplining Bodies: On the Continuity of Power Relations in Pedagogy. In: Popkewitz and Brennan, ed. Foucault’s Challenge: Discourse, Knowledge and Power in Education. New York: Teachers College Press, 1998, p. 232.
Bentham, Jeremy. Panopticon; or, the inspection-house. In: Bowring, ed,. The Works of Jeremy Bentham. Edinburgh: William Tait, 1791 [1843].
‘The procedures of power resorted to in modern societies are far more numerous and diverse and rich. It would be false to say that the principle of visibility has dominated the whole technology of power since the 19th century’ (Foucault, Michel. The Eye of Power. In: Lotringer, ed. Foucault Live: Collected Interviews, 1961–1984. New York: Semiotext(e), 1996 [1977], p. 227).
Elsewhere, work has tended towards this position. See Hoskin, Keith. Foucault under examination: The crypto-educationalist unmasked. In: Ball, ed. Foucault and Education: Disciplines and Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1990.
Bell, Andrew. The Madras School, or Elements of Tuition: Comprising the Analysis of an Experiment in Education, Made at the Male Asylum, Madras. London: Murray, 1808, p. vii.
BFSS. Report of the British and Foreign School Society. London: Taylor, 1814, p. 44.
BFSS. Report of the British and Foreign School Society. The general meeting. November 1815. London: Taylor, 1815, pp. 3–4.
Bell, Andrew. The Report of the Military Male Orphan Asylum at Madras, a New Edition. London: Murray, 1812, p. xx.
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BFSS. Sixteenth report of the British and Foreign School Society. London: Vogel, 1821, p. 49.
BFSS. Fourteenth report of the British and Foreign School Society. London: Bensley and Son, 1819, p. 41.
Salmon, David. Joseph Lancaster. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1904, p. 10.
Hunter, Ian. Subjectivity and Government. Economy and Society, 1993, 22(1), p. 130.
Cruickshank, Marjorie. David Stow, Scottish pioneer of teacher training in Britain. British Journal of Educational Studies, 1966, 14(2), p. 206.
Stow, David. The Training System, Moral Training School, and Normal Seminary. Tenth Edition. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1854, p. 61.
Shaw, George Bernard. An Unsocial Socialist. London: John Murray, 2012 [1884].
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Hunter, Ian. Culture and Government: The Emergence of Literary Education. London: Macmillan, 1988, p. 59.
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Allen, A. (2014). Bodies. In: Benign Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137272867_1
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