Abstract
In March 2005, Siim Kallas, then Vice-President of the Commission and responsible for Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti-Fraud, in a speech at the European Foundation for Management in Nottingham, made no secret of his aversion to the involvement of non-governmental organizations in European integration: ‘Many NGOs rely on public funding, some from the Commission. Annually the Commission channels over 2 billion Euros to developing countries through NGOs… Currently, a lot of money is channelled to “good causes” through organisations we know little about. Noble causes always deserve a closer look. In the Middle Ages the forests of Nottingham were famous for the courageous Robin Hood, the “prince of thieves” who tricked the Sheriff of Nottingham and stole from the rich in order to help the poor. One may regard this legendary figure as an early NGO. His cause seemed noble, but his ways to redistribute wealth were not always quite transparent.’1
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Notes
Chris Dammers, The European Union and NGOs: An Ever-expanding Relationship? in: Marjorie Lister (ed.), The New Europe: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999, 85–102, 85.
European Commission, The European Community’s Development Policy. Statement by the Council and the Commission, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2000;
Gordon Crawford, The European Union and Strengthening Civil Society in Africa, in: Maurizio Carbone and Marjorie R. Lister (eds.), New Pathways in International Development: Gender and the Civil Society in EU Policy, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006, 139–58, 139–40.
See the introduction to this volume; also Jan W. van Deth and William A. Maloney, Introduction: From Bottom-Up and Top-Down Multilevel Governance in Europe, in: idem (eds.), Civil Society and Governance in Europe. From National to International Linkages, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2008, 3–18, here 4–9.
To cite only a few different concepts from a huge literature: Stephen R. Hurt, Civil Society and European Union Development Policy, in: Maurizio Carbone and Marjorie R. Lister (eds.), New Pathways in International Development: Gender and the Civil Society in EU Policy, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006, 109–22; Jürgen Kocka, Zivilgesellschaft in historischer Perspektive, in: Forschungsjournal Neue Soziale Bewegungen, vol. 16, no. 2 (2003), 29–37; Sven Reichardt, Civil Society: Notes on the Revival of a Concept, in: Sven Eliaeson (ed.), Building Democracy and Civil Society East of the Elbe. Essays in Honour of Edmund Mokrzycki, London: Routledge, 2006, 17–28; Thomas Fetzer, Zivilgesellschaftliche Organisationen in Europa nach 1945: Katalysatoren für die Herausbildung transnationaler ldentitäten? in: Hartmut Kaelble, Martin Kirsch und Alexander Schmidt-Gernig (eds.), Transnationale Offentlichkeiten und Identitäten im 20. Jahrhundert, Frankfurt: Campus, 2002, 355–92; Roland Roth, Die dunklen Seiten der Zivilgesellschaft. Grenzen einer zivilge-sellschaftlichen Fundiemng von Demokratie, in: Forschungsjournal Neue Soziale Bewegungen, vol. 16, no. 2 (2003), 59–73; Nelson Kasfir, Civil Society, the State and Democracy in Africa, in: Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, vol. 36, no. 2 (1998), 123–49.
Jean Bossuyt, Mainstreaming Civil Society in ACP—EU Development Cooperation, in: Maurizio Carbone and Marjorie R. Lister (eds.), New Pathways in International Development: Gender and the Civil Society in EU Policy, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006, 123–38, here 123–5; also Maurizio Carbone, European NGOs in EU Development Policy: Between Fmstration and Resistance, in: idem and Marjorie R. Lister (eds.), New Pathways in International Development: Gen-der and the Civil Society in EU Policy, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006, 197–210; Valentina Bettin, NGOs and the Development Policy of the European Union, in: Pierre-Marie Dupuy and Luisa Vierucci (eds.), NGOs in International Law. Efficiency in Flexibility? Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2008, 116–34; Dammers, European Union; Hurt, Civil Society.
Even if ‘non-governmental organizations’ were already mentioned in the 1945 UN Charter, the term gained broader relevance only in the 1970s, see Peter Willets, Non-Governmental Organizations in World Politics. The Construction of Global Governance, London: Routledge 2011, 6f. Civil society, although a century-old notion, was rediscovered only in the 1970s and 1980s in Latin America and in the eastern bloc by oppositional movements, see Reichardt, Civil Society, 17–18.
Urban Vahsen, Eurafrikanische Entwicklungskooperation. Die Assoziierungspolitik der EWG gegenüber dem subsaharischen Afrika in den 1960er Jahren, Stuttgart: Steiner, 2010;
Guia Migani, La France et l’Afrique sub-saharienne, 1957— 1963: histoire d’une décolonisation entre idéaux eurafricains et politique de puissance, Brussels: PIE, 2008;
Thomas Moser, Europäische Integration, Dekolonisation, Eurafrika: eine historische Analyse über Entstehungsbedingungen der Eurafrikanischen Gemeinschaft von der Weltwirtschaftskrise bis zum Jaunde-Vertrag, 1929–1963, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2000;
Lili Reyels, Die Entstehung des ersten Vertrags von Lomé im deutsch-französischen Spannungsfeld 1973–1975, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2008; Jean-Marie Palayret, Mondialisme contre régionalisme: CEE et ACP dans les négociations de la convention de Lomé 1970–75, in: Antonio Varsori (ed.), Inside the European Community. Actors and Policies in the European Integration 1957–1972, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2006, 369–97.
Véronique Dimier, Négocier avec les rois nègres: L’influence des administrateurs coloniaux français sur la politique européenne de développement, in: Marie-Thérèse Bitsch and Gérard Bossuat (eds.), L’Europe unie et l’Afrique: de l’idée d’Eurafrique à la convention de Lomé I, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2005, 393–409.
Martin Rempe, Entwicklung im Konflikt, Die EWG und der Senegal, Köln: Böhlau, 2012; Vahsen, Eurafrikanische Entwicklungskooperation.
In general, see Peter Weingart, Die Stunde der Wahrheit? Zum Verhältnis der Wissenschaft zu Politik, Wirtschaft und Medien in der Wissensgesellschaft, Weilerswist: Velbrück Wissenschaft, 2001;
a good example is the scientifi-cation of the German economic policy, see Alexander Nützenadel, Stunde der Ökonomen. Wissenschaft, Politik und Expertenkultur in der Bundesrepublik 1949–1974, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005.
The same argument is put forward by Justin Greenwood, Interest Representation in the European Union (Second edition), Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, 7.
Martin Rempe, Fit für den Weltmarkt in fünf Jahren? Die Modernisierung der senegalesischen Erdnusswirtschaft in den 1960er Jahren, in: Hubertus Büschel and Daniel Speich (eds.), Entwicklungswelten: Globalgeschichte der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit, Frankfurt: Campus, 2009, 241–74.
Vahsen, Eurafrikanische Entwicklungskooperation, 362–8; also Volker Alberts and Jürgen Bellers, Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland und die Entwicklungspolitik der Europäischen Gemeinschaft 1957–1983, Münster: LIT, 1986, 37–42.
Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958.
Bineta Gueye, Croissance démographique et approvisionnement en eau courante de la ville de Dakar, Sénégal (1945–1971), Ph.D., Paris: Université Paris Diderot, 1998, 160–90.
Obadiah Mailafia, Europe and Economic Reform in Africa. Structural Adjustment and Economic Diplomacy, London: Routledge, 1997, 59f.; Vahsen, Eurafrikanische Entwicklungskooperation, 359–62.
On the background of the embargo and the German debate Karsten Rudolph, Wirtschaftsdiplomatie im Kalten Krieg. Die Ostpolitik der deutschen Großindustrie 1945–1991, Frankfurt: Campus, 2004, 164–71.
Couve de Murville to de Lagarde, July 1965, in: Ministère des affaires Étrangères (ed.), Documents diplomatiques français 1965, Brussels: PIE, 2005, 166f.; ministère des affaires Étrangères français to Représentation perma-nente Brussels, 29 July 1965, AMAEF, Sénégal 102; Direction des affaires africaines et malgaches, Note, 25 July 1965, ibid. To be sure, de Gaulle stated that France had not at any time actively obstructed the plans.
Nico Schrijver, The EU’s Common Development Cooperation Policy, in: Mario Telö (ed.), The European Union and Global Governance, London: Routledge, 2009, 176–91;
Gabriele Bäcker, Kompetenzverteilung und Entscheidungsverfahren in der europäischen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit nach Maastricht, Bochum: Institut für Entwicklungsforschung und Entwicklungspolitik, 1994, 34f.;
Michèle Knodt and Xandra Schnurre-Weiß, Entwicklungspolitik, in: Hubert Heinelt and Michèle Knodt (eds.), Politikfelder im EU-Mehrebenensystem. Instrumente und Strategien europäischen Regierens, Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2008, 81–96.
Joäo de Deus Pinheiro, Introduction, in: European Commission (ed.), Partners in Development. The European Union and NGOs, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1995, 5, 17; Carbone, European NGOs, 199–202.
Akira Iriye, Global Community. The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004, 126–56, especially 141–3.
The exact figures are the following: Fourth EDF 29.7 per cent and fifth EDF 27.4 per cent, see Directorate-General for Development of the Commission of the European Communities, Ten years of Lomé. A Record of ACP EEC Partnership 1976–1985. Report on the Implementation of Financial and Technical Cooperation under the First Two Lomé Conventions, Luxembourg: Commission of the European Communities, 1986, 58; Cosgrove-Twitchett, Europe and Africa, 135.
With reference to USAID, a similar argument is put forward by Rubén Berrios, Contracting for Development. The Role of For-Profit Contractors in U.S. Foreign Development Assistance, London: Praeger, 2000, 53–61.
Berthold Kuhn, Entwicklungspolitik zwischen Markt und Staat: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen zivilgesellschaftlicher Organisationen, Frankfurt a.M.: Campus, 2005, 183; Carbone, European NGOs, 201–2.
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Rempe, M. (2013). From Development Business to Civil Society? Societal Actors in Development Cooperation. In: Kaiser, W., Meyer, JH. (eds) Societal Actors in European Integration. Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137017659_7
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