Abstract
In southern Africa, the white settlers who trekked into uncharted territory used to form up their wagons into a circle when they stopped for the night, as a defensive measure against attack. This formation was called the laager and writers still speak of the laager mentality of Afrikaners. It is a label which could equally well be applied to Ulster Protestants. Both groups have frequently been characterised as being defensive and rigid, viewing difference and change as a threat. This characteristic is sometimes said to stem from their settler past.1 In terms of both history and stereotype, there are clear parallels between Ulster Protestants and Afrikaners. However, there are also differences. In this chapter, I shall examine these differences before outlining what I consider to be the most important aspects of the respective histories of each group, and then drawing out the common themes from those histories and experiences.
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Notes and References
See Todd, Jennifer (1994) ‘History and Structure in Loyalist Ideology: The Possibilities of Ideological Change’, Irish Journal of Sociology, vol. 4, pp. 67–79, and
Clayton, Pamela (1996) Enemies and Passing Friends: Settler Ideologies in Twentieth Century Ulster (London: Pluto Press). Clayton maintains that Ulster Protestants can still be viewed as settlers because they ‘constitute a group which is seen to be distinct and which maintains status closure and a relatively powerful position vis-à-vis indigenes who present at least a latent threat to this supremacy …’ (p. 34).
For much more sophisticated expositions of the argument against the comparison, see Brewer, John D. (1992) ‘Sectarianism and Racism, and Their Parallels and Differences’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 352–64, and
Smith, M. G. (1986) ‘Pluralism, Race and Ethnicity in Selected African Countries’, Rex, John and Mason, David (eds) Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations (Cambridge University Press) pp. 187–225.
See Miles, Robert (1993) Racism After Race ‘Relations’ (London: Routledge).
No statistics are available on the subject of religious conversion in Northern Ireland, therefore the conclusion is based on my own view which has been kindly corroborated by David Stevens, of the Irish Council of Churches. A survey by Paul Compton and John Coward suggests that approximately 40 per cent of mixed marriages in Northern Ireland involve a change of religious denomination by one of the partners. See Compton, Paul A. and Coward, John (1989) Fertility and Family Planning in Northern Ireland (Aldershot: Avebury), p. 191. The rate of mixed marriage varies in different parts of Northern Ireland. Gillian Robinson cites figures which suggest that, in 1990, while almost 20 per cent of marriages in the Down and Connor Catholic diocese (which covers Belfast) were mixed, only 9 per cent in the Derry diocese and 4 per cent in the Armagh diocese were mixed marriages. See
Robinson, Gillian (1992) Cross-Community Marriage in Northern Ireland (Belfast: Centre for Social Research, Queen’s University) p. 11.
See Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (1996) 1994 Labour Force Survey Religion Report (Belfast: NISRA) p. 9. Its figures suggest that Catholic men are twice as likely to be unemployed as Protestant men. The Catholic/Protestant ratio for the likelihood of unemployment for both sexes is 1.9:1.
Analysis of data from the 1991 Northern Ireland Census suggests that roughly half of all households in Northern Ireland are in areas which are either more than 90 per cent Catholic or more than 90 per cent Protestant. A further 17 per cent of households are in areas where either Catholics or Protestants account for between 80 per cent and 90 per cent of the population. See Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (1997) Focus on Northern Ireland: A Statistical Profile (London: The Stationery Office) p. 45.
The following sources were drawn on in compiling this brief history of Afrikaner nationalism: Butler, Jeffrey (1989) ‘Afrikaner Women and the Creation of Ethnicity in a Small South African Town, 1902–1950’, in Vail, Leroy (ed.) The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (London: James Currey) pp. 55–81;
Davenport, T. R. H. (1987) South Africa: A Modern History, 3rd edn (Basingstoke: Macmillan);
De Gruchy, John W. (1986) The Church Struggle in South Africa, 2nd edn (London: Collins);
Giliomee, Hermann (1989) ‘The Communal Nature of the South African Conflict’, Giliomee, Hermann and Schlemmer, Lawrence (eds) Negotiating South Africa’s Future (Basingstoke: Macmillan) pp. 114–29;
Leach, Graham (1990) The Afrikaners: Their Last Great Trek (London: Mandarin);
Louw, P. Eric (1994) ‘Shifting Patterns of Political Discourse in the New South Africa’, Critical Studies in Mass Communication, vol. 11, pp. 22–53;
Moodie, T. Dunbar (1975) The Rise of Afrikanerdom: Power, Apartheid and the Afrikaner Civil Religion (Berkeley: University of California Press);
O’Meara, Dan (1983) Volkscapitalisme: Class, Capital and Ideology in the Development of Afrikaner Nationalism, 1934–1948 (Cambridge University Press);
Serfontein, J. H. P. (1982) Apartheid Change and the NG Kerk (Emmarentia, SA: Taurus);
Worden, Nigel (1994) The Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid (Oxford: Blackwell).
Giliomee, Hermann (1987) ‘Afrikaner Nationalism, 1870–2001’, in Fischer, Alan and Albeldas, Michel (eds) A Question of Survival: Conversations with Key South Africans (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers), p. 17.
See DRC (1997) The Story of the Dutch Reformed Church’s Journey with Apartheid, 1960–1994: A Testimony and Confession (English extract from the Afrikaans document) (Wellington: Hugenote-Uitgewers).
See Bosch, D. J. (1984) ‘The Roots and Fruits of Afrikaner Civil Religion’, in Hofmeyer, J. W. and Vorster, W. S. (eds) New Faces of Africa: Essays in Honour of Ben (Barend Jacobus) Marais (Pretoria: University of South Africa) pp. 14–35.
See Ngcokovane, Cecil (1989) Demons of Apartheid: A Moral and Ethical Analysis of the N. G. K., N. P. and Broederbond’s Justification of Apartheid (Braamfontein: Skotaville Publishers). The DRC’s admission of its own lobbying activities after 1948 is contained in DRC, op. cit.
See DRC, op. cit.; Giliomee, Hermann (1994) ‘“Survival in Justice”: An Afrikaner Debate over Apartheid’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 527–48; and Leach, op. cit.
See DRC, op. cit., and Walshe, Peter (1983) Church Versus State: The Case of the Christian Institute (London: Hurst).
In addition to works already cited, this section draws on the following texts: Lapping, Brian (1987) [1986] Apartheid: A History (London: Paladin Grafton Books) and
Sparks, Allister (1994) Tomorrow Is Another Country: The Inside Story of South Africa’s Negotiated Revolution (Johannesburg: Struik Book Distributors).
DRC (1990) Church and Society 1990: A Testimony of the Dutch Reformed Church (Ned Geref Kerk) (Bloemfontein: General Synodical Commission), pp. 39–40.
This section draws on the following sources: Akenson, Donald Harman (1992) God’s Peoples: Covenant and Land in South Africa, Israel and Ulster (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press);
Bardon, Jonathan (1992) A History of Ulster (Belfast: Blackstaff);
Buckland, Patrick (1981) A History of Northern Ireland (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan);
Foster, R. F. (1988) Modern Ireland1600–1972 (Harmondsworth: Allen Lane);
Gray, Tony (1972) The Orange Order (London: Bodley Head) and
Miller, David (1978) Queen’s Rebels: Ulster Loyalism in Historical Perspective (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan).
Hempton, David (1996) Religion and Political Culture in Britain and Ireland: From the Glorious Revolution to the Decline of Empire (Cambridge University Press) p. 93. With regard to Bohemia, Hempton states that its entire Protestant gentry class was expropriated.
See Dunlop, John (1995) A Precarious Belonging: Presbyterians and the Conflict in Ireland (Belfast: Blackstaff).
Wright, Frank (1973) ‘Protestant Ideology and Politics in Ulster’, European Journal of Sociology, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 213–80.
Holmes, R. F. G. (1990) ‘The General Assembly and Politics’ in Holmes, R. F. G. and Knox, R. Buick (eds) The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland 1840–1990: A Celebration of Presbyterian Witness During 150 Years (Coleraine: PCI) pp. 175–6, citing Witness, 2 June 1914.
See Akenson, Donald (1973) Education and Enmity: The Control of Schooling in Northern Ireland 1920–50 (Newton Abbot: David & Charles). Also
Jones, Stewart (1986) Irish Presbyterianism and Unionism in the Context of the Creation and Development of the Northern Ireland State (unpublished thesis presented as part of Master’s degree, Belfast: Queen’s University).
Wallace, Martin (1971) Northern Ireland: 50 Years of Self-Government (Newton Abbot: David & Charles) p. 120.
See Whyte, John (1991) Interpreting Northern Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon Press) pp. 164–9 for a discussion on differing views on the extent of discrimination.
PCI (1967) General Assembly Annual Reports (Belfast: PCI) p. 127.
PCI, Church and Government Committee (1993) Presbyterian Principles and Political Witness in Northern Ireland (Belfast: PCI) p. 15.
PCI General Board statement made in February 1972, in PCI (1972) The Northern Ireland Situation: A Selection of Church Statements (Belfast: PCI) p. 7.
Norval, Aletta J. (1996) Deconstructing Apartheid Discourse (London: Verso) p. 95.
Akenson, God’s Peoples. Another proponent of this argument is David Martin. See Martin, David (1997) Does Christianity Cause War? (Oxford: Clarendon Press).
See van Jaarsveld, F. A. (1977) ‘The Afrikaner’s Idea of His Calling and Mission in South African History’, Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, vol. 19, pp. 16–28.
See Bruce, Steve (1986) God Save Ulster! The Religion and Politics of Paisleyism (Oxford: Clarendon Press) and
Gallagher, Eric and Worrall, Stanley (1982) Christians in Ulster 1968–1980 (Oxford University Press).
See Wuthnow, Robert (1989) [1988] The Restructuring of American Religion (Princeton University Press) and
Wuthnow, Robert (1989) The Struggle for America’s Soul: Evangelicals, Liberals and Secularism (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans).
The term ‘curator’ is used in a similar but not identical fashion by Buckley and Kenney. They identify active participants in churches and cultural organisations as ‘curators’ of the activities and belief-systems of an ethnic group. See Buckley, Anthony and Mary Kenney (1995) Negotiating Identity: Rhetoric, Metaphor, and Social Drama in Northern Ireland (Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press).
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© 2000 Liz Fawcett
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Fawcett, L. (2000). Under Siege: A Brief History of Afrikaners and Ulster Presbyterians. In: Campling, J. (eds) Religion, Ethnicity and Social Change. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780333983270_2
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