Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Base Colonies in the Western Hemisphere, 1940–1967 pp 117–135Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Building Bases on a Jim Crow Island

  • Chapter

  • 63 Accesses

Part of the book series: Studies of the Americas ((STAM))

Abstract

The control of wartime labor reached its apex in tiny Bermuda. Given the white merchant elite’s proclivity to use the power of the state to advance its economic interests, it is not altogether surprising that it would find in the segregated Panama Canal Zone a ready model. It has already been established that tourists and year-round visitors were drawn to Bermuda’s beauty and charm. The island’s colorfully painted homes of coral block construction were nestled in green hills “with no distractions of a busy world.”1 Its many attractions included its quiet seclusion, old-worldliness, outdoor recreational facilities and the absence of motor vehicles. With private automobiles banned, the island’s narrow roads were filled with bicycles. Bermuda allowed wealthy North Americans to escape the noise and bustle of modern life. Even during the depression years, Bermuda attracted over 80,000 tourists per year.2 The year-round presence of rich Americans in Tucker’s Town and elsewhere contributed further to the livelihood of many Bermudians.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Notes

  1. Admiral Greenslade, “Social and Economic Conditions in Bermuda,” October 26, 1940, 811.34544, Box 3788, RG 59 Decimal Files, 1940–44. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  3. William H. Beck, American Consul General, “Annual Political Review— Bermuda,” December 31, 1940, File 1940L 879.7, Box 3, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Admiral Greenslade, “Social and Economic Conditions in Bermuda,” October 26, 1940, 811.34544, Box 3788, RG 59 Decimal Files, 1940–44. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Hector C. Adam, Jr., American Vice Consul, “The Social, Economic and Strategic Consequences of the Proposed New Taxation in Bermuda,” October 7, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  6. April 10, 1944, File 319.1 Periodic Reports (S-2 Reports), Box 51, RG 338. Bermuda Base Command. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  7. “Post War Bermuda,” The Recorder (March 7, 1945).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Colonial Secretary, Minute, December 21, 1940, File: 1279 Illegitimacy. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Admiral Greenslade, “Social and Economic Conditions in Bermuda,” October 26, 1940, 811.34544, Box 3788, RG 59 Decimal Files, 1940–44. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Hector C. Adam, Jr., American Vice Consul, “The Social, Economic and Strategic Consequences of the Proposed New Taxation in Bermuda,” October 7, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Robert (no last name), Office of Commandant, U.S. Naval Operating Base, Bermuda to Charles Taussig, October 20, 1942, File: Caribbean Commission—U.S. Section—Miscellaneous. Box 36, Taussig Papers, FDR Library.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Lawrence A. Nurse, Trade Unionism and Industrial Relations in the Commonwealth Caribbean: History, Contemporary Practice and Prospect (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992), 96; O. Nigel Bolland, On the March: Labour Rebellions in the British Caribbean, 1934–1939 (Kingston: Ian Randle, 1995);

    Google Scholar 

  13. It has been suggested that the fund was a metropolitan solution which ignored local contexts. See J.E. Lewis, “‘Tropical East Ends’ and the Second World War: Some Contradictions in Colonial Welfare Initiatives,” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 28, 2 (May 2000), 42.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Colonial Secretary, Minute, February 19, 1940, File: E137 Labour Legislation—General Policy, 1938–51. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  15. J. Henry Richardson, Bermuda Economic Advisory Committee to Colonial Secretary, June 1, 1942, File: E137: Labour Legislation—General Policy, 1938–51. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Hector C. Adam, Jr., American Vice Consul, “The Social, Economic and Strategic Consequences of the Proposed New Taxation in Bermuda,” October 7, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Clay Merrell, American Vice Consul, “Annual Economic Review,” July 15, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Admiral Greenslade, “Social and Economic Conditions in Bermuda,” October 26, 1940, 811.34544, Box 3788, RG 59 Decimal Files, 1940–44. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Clay Merrell, American Vice Consul, “Annual Economic Review,” July 15, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “The Labor Situation in Bermuda,” October 13, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Board of Experts on Naval and Air Bases in British Possessions in the Western Hemisphere to Secretary of the Navy, “Supplementary Report— Bermuda,” October 26, 1940, File: Board of Experts on Naval and Air Bases, Box 73, RG 338, Bermuda Base Command, NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  22. There is a rich literature on the Panama Canal Zone: D. McCullough, The Path between the Seas (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977); John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903–1979 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Michael L. Conniff, Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001); See especially Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “Annual Economic Review,” April 28, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Peter Neary, “‘A Mortgaged Property’: The Impact of the United States on Newfoundland, 1940–49,” in James Hiller and Peter Neary, eds., Twentieth-Century Newfoundland: Explorations (St. John’s: Breakwater, 1994). See also Neary’s Newfoundland in the North Atlantic World (Montreal: McGillQueen’s University Press, 1988).

    Google Scholar 

  25. “The History of Naval Facilities in Bermuda,” August 24, 1951, Box 10, Field Liaison and Records Section. Base Maintenance Division, 1930–1965, NHC. The Bermuda base contractors employed 400 Cubans, 125 Canadians, and 3,600 Americans. A policy change in April 1943 resulted in an order that all naval construction in the base colonies be conducted by Sea Bee Construction Battalions. In Bermuda, the 31st Battalion numbering 27 officers and 1027 enlisted men took over the bulk of the labor in November 1942.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Walter White, Secretary of the NAACP, wrote Cordell Hull in April 1941 to protest reports that the British government had requested United States “not to send any Negroes regardless of qualifications to work in Trinidad, or any other islands in the Caribbean.” He asked if any such request had been received—“in writing, verbally or in any other fashion”—and if the United States had entered into any such agreement. Walter White, Secretary, NAACP, to Cordell Hull, April 23, 1941, Box 3791, RG 59. 811.34544. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  27. William H. Beck, American Consul General to Secretary of State. November 1, 1944. Box 3802, 811.34544. RG 59. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  28. William H. Beck, American Consul General in Bermuda to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1944, File: “Hamilton, Bermuda, 1943–48,” RG 84: Bermuda Records R. Bases Leased by the United States in Bermuda, 1941, 42–48 (1943–48). NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Bates Raney, Military Intelligence, Memorandum, October 17, 1944, File: 230.14: Hire of Employees (conference) #2, Box 33, RG 332: Bermuda Base Command, NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Griffith C. Evans, Jr., Officer in Charge, USS YP-61, to Commanding Officer, Fort Bell, August 15,1943, File 291.2 Race, Box 43, RG 338 BBC. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  31. A.G. Strong, Brigadier General, Commanding BBC to Commandant of U.S. Naval Operating Base, August 17, 1943, File 291.2 Race, Box 43, RG 338 BBC. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Adjunct S-1, Minute, March 4, 1943. “Places Off Limits.” File 000.2 Places Off Limits, Box 17, RG 338 Records of U.S. Army Command Bermuda Base Command (BBC). NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Senior Patrol Officer to Commanding Officer, Naval Operating Base Bermuda, March 25, 1945, File 000.2 Places Off Limits, Box 17, RG 338 Records of US Army Command Bermuda Base Command (BBC). NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Commanding General. Memorandum. June 14, 1945, File 291.1 Marriages. Box 43, RG 338 BBC. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  35. August 3, 1944. Paul A. Kenney, Colonel, Medical Corps, Base Surgeon. File 319.112. Reports, Sanitary Monthly. Box 56. RG 338. Bermuda Base Command. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  36. November 3–12, 1940. Sanitary Survey of Bermuda. Captain Harry Baker, Sanitary Corps. File 333: Inspection and Investigations by IG and Other Government Officers, 1941–42. Box 69. RG 338. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  37. March 3, 1943. J.H. Van Marter, Ltn. Colonel, Medical Corps, Base Surgeon. File 319.112. Reports, Sanitary, Monthly. Box 56. RG 338. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  38. J. Henry Richardson, Economic Adviser to the Bermuda Government. Review of Economic Conditions, Policy and Organization in Bermuda, February 1943, CO 37/29416: Review of Economic Conditions, Policy and Organization by Prof. J. Richardson. Comments on the Report. PRO.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Meeting Minutes, November 25, 1940, E137: Labour Legislation—General Policy, 1938–51. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Minutes, November 25, 1940, F085: Local Labor Board (Wage rates, hours), 1940–43, Box 23, RG 338 Bermuda Base Command in Record of U.S. Army. Classified General Records. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  41. William H. Beck, American Consul General, February 3, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  42. History of the War, 1939–1945, Volume 1, Microfilm. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  43. William H. Beck, American Consul General, “Annual Political Review,” February 15,1945, File 1945: 131–834.5, Box 6, RG 84: Bermuda. General Reports, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Stanley Spurling to Colonial Secretary, February 25, 1941, E134: Labour Market—General Policy (Conscription of Labour). Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Governor to Secretary of State, September 1, 1941, E137: Labour Legislation—General Policy, 1938–51. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “The Labor Situation in Bermuda,” October 13, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  47. A.W. Betts, Lt. Colonel, Corps of Engineers to Commanding General, Bermuda Base Command, June 16,1943, “History of Bermuda Engineering District,” U.S. Army War Diary File. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Governor to Secretary of State, September 1, 1941, E137: Labour Legislation—General Policy, 1938–51. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  49. William H. Beck, American Consul General, February 3, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Governor to Secretary of State, September 1, 1941, E137: Labour Legislation—General Policy, 1938–51. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  51. “Approximate Number of Bermudian Workpeople Employed in Main Occupations,” 1941 Registration, E134: Labour Market—General Policy (Conscription of Labour). Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “The Labor Situation in Bermuda,” October 13, 1941, Box 5067, RG 59. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, July 14, 1941, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “The Labor Situation in Bermuda,” October 13, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, August 11, 1941, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Ibid., August 17, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Ibid., September 16, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “The Labor Situation in Bermuda,” October 13, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, October 13, 1941, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Acting Governor, Minute, August 4, 1943, File: 654/C2 “Barbadian Labour Importation of” Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “The Labor Situation in Bermuda,” October 13, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, November 17, 1941, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Ibid., December 10, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Partial Document that stands alone in file. File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “Annual Economic Review,” April 28, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, June 1, 1942, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  67. August 2, 1943, File 319.114. Intelligence Reports. Weekly #2. Box 56. RG 338. BBC. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Basil F. Macgowan, “Annual Review of Economic Conditions in Bermuda— 1943,” October 31, 1944, File: 1944: 85–892.51, Box 5, RG 84: Bermuda. General Reports, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  69. E189/A: Manpower Commission, 1943–44. Bermuda Archives. Those women who met the colony’s exacting property qualifications won the right to vote in 1944.

    Google Scholar 

  70. November 29, 1943, File 319.1 Periodic Reports (S-2 Reports), Box 51, RG 338: Bermuda Base Command. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “Economic Review—Bermuda, Third Quarter, 1941,” October 30, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “Annual Economic Review,” April 28, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Hector C. Adam, Jr., American Vice Consul, “The Social, Economic and Strategic Consequences of the Proposed New Taxation in Bermuda,” October 7, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Hector C. Adam, Jr., American Vice Consul, “Economic Review—Bermuda, Second Quarter, 1942,” September 5, 1942, File: 1941, 800–834.5, Box 4, RG 84: Bermuda. General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Edwin W. Martin, American Vice Consul, “Economic Review—Bermuda, Third Quarter, 1941,” October 30, 1941, File: 1941: 850–885, Box 4, RG 84: Foreign Service. Bermuda General Records, 1936–49. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  76. G.H. Cantle, shipwright to Commodore, December 8, 1941, File: E-53: Rent Restrictions, 1941–54. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  77. R.A. Houghson, shipwright, to Commodore, December 8, 1941, File: E-53: Rent Restrictions, 1941–54. Bermuda Archives

    Google Scholar 

  78. Reginald Perryman to tenants, December 1, 1941, File: E-53: Rent Restrictions, 1941–54. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Mrs. Hastings Talbot, August 24, 1943, File: E-53: Rent Restrictions, 1941–54. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  80. “Rents Restriction Bill Is Put Aside by House,” Royal Gazette and Colonist Daily (January 12, 1943).

    Google Scholar 

  81. Major J.E. Tilton, Memorandum, January 23, 1943, File: 085: Local Labor Board (wage rates, hours), 1940–43, Box 23, RG 338 Bermuda Base Command, NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Minutes of Meeting of Joint Army-Navy Wage Board, April 23, 1943, File: 085: Local Labor Board (wage rates, hours), 1940–43, Box 23, RG 338 Bermuda Base Command, NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Major Glenn A. Rafferty, Corps of Engineers to Commanding General, Bermuda Base Command, June 16, 1943, File: 230 Employees (conference), Box 33, RG 332 Bermuda Base Command, NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, May 28, 1943, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  85. General A.G. Strong to American Consul General, July 1, 1943, File: 085: Local Labor Board (wage rates, hours), 1940–43, Box 23, RG 338 Bermuda Base Command, NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, June 11, 1943, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  87. “Wage Decreases Put in at Naval Air Station,” Royal Gazette and Colonist (June 20, 1944).

    Google Scholar 

  88. Labour Board Meeting, Minutes, June 29, 1944, File: E162 Labour Board Minutes of Meetings, 1941–49. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  89. William H. Beck, American Consul General, “Annual Political Review,” 15 February 1945, File 1945: 131–834.5, Box 6, RG 84: Bermuda. General Reports, 1936–49. NARA; See also Bermuda. History of the War, 1939– 1945, Bound Copy 1943, Volume 2, July–December 1943.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Prior to that point, there was some indication that employers purposely under-reported their wage rates to ensure that the Board’s wage schedules were below actual rates.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Executive Council Minute, August 8, 1945, File: E139/C: Labour Board— Staff. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  92. October 25, 1943. Bates Raney, Major, Military Intelligence. S-2. File 319.114. Intelligence Reports. Box 56. RG 338. Bermuda Base Command. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  93. File 230.746. Box 38. RG 338. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Governor ofBermuda to Colonial Office. February 10,1942. CO 971/20/8. PRO.

    Google Scholar 

  95. File: Private Mifford Simon, 1944. Box 10. RG 338. Records of U.S. Army Commands, 1942–. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  96. File: Staff Sergeant Samuel A. Sherna, SCMO #112. 1943. Box 10. RG 338. NARA.

    Google Scholar 

  97. See file: S32/2/2: Racial Discrimination. Bermuda Archives. Jim Crow was challenged by a growing number of black Bermudians. In March 1945, police ejected a nonwhite man from the Playhouse for sitting in the “wrong seat” in the center section. The police were of the opinion that the young man, the nineteen-year-old nephew of a police detective, was deliberately challenging the policy of segregated sections. He was not alone. With the reestablishment of trans-Atlantic aviation, Bermuda became a key stepping stone between Great Britain and its Caribbean colonies. As a result, there was a constant stream of nonwhite VIP’s staying the night on layover. Predictably, a series of international incidents followed the refusal of Bermuda’s luxury hotels to accommodate these weary travelers. There was considerable negative press coverage of these incidents in Great Britain and the Bermuda government came under enormous pressure to integrate.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Governor to Secretary of State for the Colonies, July 11, 1953, S32/2/2: Racial Discrimination. Bermuda Archives.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Bermuda. History of the War, 1939–1945, Bound Copy 1943, Volume 2, July–August 1943. Health Administration in Newfoundland in the 1930s and 1940s,” Canadian Bulletin of Medicctl History 15 (1998), 129–151. A more critical view of the Commission of Government is presented in James Overton, “Economic Crisis and the End of Democracy: Politics and Newfoundland during the Great Depression,” Labour/le Travail 26 (Fall 1990), 85–124.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Steven High
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Copyright information

© 2009 Steven High

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

High, S. (2009). Building Bases on a Jim Crow Island. In: Base Colonies in the Western Hemisphere, 1940–1967. Studies of the Americas. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230618046_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation