Skip to main content

The Impact of Western Beauty Ideals on the Lives of Women: A Sociocultural Perspective

  • Chapter
The Body Beautiful

Abstract

According to a recent survey of 3,300 girls and women across 10 countries, 90 per cent of all women aged 15 to 64 worldwide want to change at least one aspect of their physical appearance, with body weight ranking the highest (Etcoff, Orbach, Scott, & D’Agostino, 2004). This finding suggests that women’s anxiety about their appearance is a global phenomenon, observed in every country studied from Saudi Arabia to the United States. Beyond body dissatisfaction, a stunning 67 per cent of all women aged 15 to 64 worldwide reported that they actually withdraw from life-engaging, life-sustaining activities due to feeling badly about their looks. These activities include giving an opinion, meeting friends, exercising, going to work, going to school, dating, and going to the doctor.

I’m tired of all this nonsense about beauty being only skin-deep. That’s deep enough. What do you want — an adorable pancreas?

∽ Jean Kerr

It is amazing how complete is the delusion that beauty is goodness.

∽ Leo Tolstoy

I wanted to get rid of my stomach, but [I have] no money... [I] asked my doctor, ‘Don’t you have a pill to give me bulimia?’

∽ Dillaway (2005: 13)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Altabe, M. (1998). Ethnicity and body image: Quantitative and qualitative analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23, 154–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (2004). Plastic Surgery Statistics. One publication at http://www.plasticsurgery.org.

  • American Society of Plastic Surgeons (2004). 2000/2001/2002/2003 National plastic surgery statistics: Cosmetic and reconstructive procedure trends. Online publication at: http://www.plasticsurgery.org/public_education/2003statistics.cfm. Retrieved September 15, 2006.

  • Andersen, A. E., & DiDomenico, L. (1992). Diet vs. shape content in popular male and female magazines: A dose-response relationship to the incidence of eating disorders? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 283–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. L., Crawford, C. E., Nadeau, J., & Lindberg, T. (1992). Was the Duchess of Windsor right? A cross-cultural view of the socio-biology of ideals of female body shape. Ethology and Sociobiology, 13, 197–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker-Sperry, L., & Grauerholz, L. (2003). The pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in children’s fairy tales. Gender and Society, 15, 711–726.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banner, L. (1983). American beauty. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barber, N. (1998). Secular changes in standards of bodily attractiveness in women: Tests of a reproductive model. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23, 449–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartky, S. (1990). Femininity and domination. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartky, S. L. (2003). Foucault, femininity, and the modernization of patriarchal power. In Rose Weitz (Ed.), The politics of women’s bodies: Sexuality, appearance and behaviour. (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, A. E. (1995). Body, self, society: The view from Fiji. Philadelphia, PN: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, A. E. (2004). Television, disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: Negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 28, 533–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, A. E., & Hamburg, P. (1996). Culture, the media, and eating disorders. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4, 163–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, A. E., Burwell, R. A., Gilman, S. E., Herzog, D. B., & Hamburg, P. (2002). Eating behaviors and attitudes following prolonged television exposure among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 509–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, J. (1972). Ways of seeing. London: BBC/Harmondsworth: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond, S., & Cash, T. (1992). Black beauty: Skin color and body images among African American college women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 874–888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable weight. Berkley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boroughs, M., & Thompson, J. K. (2002). Body depilation in males: A new body image concern? International Journal of Men’s Health, 1, 247–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boroughs, M., Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2005). Male body depilation: Prevalence and associated features of body hair removal. Sex Roles, 52, 637–644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Botta, R. (2003). For your health? The relationship between magazine reading and adolescents body image and eating disturbances. Sex Roles, 48, 389–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowker, A., Gadbois, S., & Cornock, B. (2003). Sport participation and self-esteem: Variations as a function of gender and gender role orientation. Sex Roles, 49, 47–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, C. A., & Jaeger, P. T. (2004). A guide to high school success for students with disabilities. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewis, A. A., McGarvey, S. T., Jones, J., & Swinburn, B. A. (1998). Perceptions of body size in Pacific Islanders. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 22, 185–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P. J., & Konner, M. (1987). An anthropological perspective of obesity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 499, 29–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brownell, K. (1991). Dieting and the search for the perfect body: Where physiology and culture collide. Behavior Therapy, 22, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brownmiller, S. (1984). Femininity. New York: Ballentine Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavior and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Evaluating the convergence of muscle appearance attitude measures. Assessment, 11, 224–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cafri, G., Blevins, N., & Thompson, J. K. (2006) The drive for muscle leanness: A complex case with features of muscle dysmorphia and eating disorder not otherwise specified. Eating and Weight Disorders, 11, 117–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, D. (1981). And all was revealed: Ladies underwear 1907–1980. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callaghan, C. A. (1994). Ideals of feminine beauty: Philosophical, social, and cultural dimensions. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calogero, R. M. (2004). A test of objectification theory: Effect of the male gaze on appearance concerns in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28,16-21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calogero, R. M., Davis, W. N., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). The sociocultural attitudes toward appearance questionnaire: Reliability and normative comparisons of eating disordered patients. Body Image, 1, 193–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calogero, R. M., Davis, W. N., & Thompson, J. K. (2005). The role of self-objectification in the experience of women with eating disorders. Sex Roles, 52, 43–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casanova, E. M. (2004). ‘No ugly women’: Concepts of race and beauty among adolescent women in Ecuador. Gender & Society, 18, 287–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T. F. (1990). The psychology of physical appearance: Aesthetics, attributes, and images. In T. F. Cash, & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 51–79). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T. F., Morrow, J. A., Hrabosky, J. I., & Perry, A. A. (2004). How has body image changed? A cross-sectional investigation of college women and men from 1983 to 2001. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 1081–1089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cattarin, J. A., Thompson, J. K., Thomas, C., & Williams, R. (2000). Body image, mood, and televised images of attractiveness: The role of social comparison. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 220–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, J. (1993). Wild swans: Three daughters of China. London: Flamingo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crane, A. R. (1956). Stereotypes of the adult held by early adolescents. Journal of Education Research, 50, 227–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Exposure, awareness and internalization. Sex Roles, 37, 701–721.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dellinger, K., & Williams, C. L. (1997). Makeup at work: Negotiating appearance rules in the workplace. Gender & Society, 11, 151–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dillaway, H. (2005). (Un)changing menopausal bodies: How women think and act in the face of a reproductive transition and gendered beauty ideals. Sex Roles, 53, 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dion, K. K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 285–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004a). Thin-ideal internalization and coial comparison tendency as moderstors of emdia models’ impact on women’s body-focused anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 768–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004b). Professional hazards? The impact of models’ body size on advertising effectiveness and 477 women’s body-focused anxiety in professions that do and do not emphasize the cultural ideal of thinness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 477–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durkin, S. J., & Paxton, S. J. (2002). Predictors of vulnerability to reduced body image satisfaction and psychological well-being in response to exposure to idealized female media images in adolescent girls. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 995–1005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dworkin, A. (1974). Women hating. New York: E. P. Dutton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dworkin, S., & Wachs, F. L. (2004). ‘Getting your body back’: Postindustrial fit motherhood in Shape Fit Pregnancy Magazine. Gender & Society, 18, 610–625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., & Longo, L. C. (1991). What is beautiful is good, but... A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 109–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eck, B. A. (2003). Men are much harder: Gendered viewing of nude images. Gender & Society, 17, 691–710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engeln-Maddox, R. (2006). Buying a beauty standard or dreaming of a new life? Expectations associated with media ideals. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 258–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Englis, B. G., Solomon, M. R., & Ashmore, R. D. (1994). Beauty before the eyes of the beholder: The cultural encoding of beauty types in magazine advertising and music television. Journal of Advertising, 23, 49–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Etcoff, N., Orbach, S., Scott, J., & D’Agostino, H. (2004). Beyond stereotypes: Rebuilding the foundation of beauty beliefs: Findings of the 2005 Dove Global Study. Online publication at: http://www.campaignforrealbeauty.com/DoveBeyondStereotypesWhitePaper.pdf. Retrived September 10, 2006.

  • Evans, P. C. (2003). ‘If only I were thin like her, maybe I could be happy like her’: The self-implications of associating a thin female ideal with life success. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 209–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fairburn, C. G., & Welch, S. L. (1990). The impact of pregnancy on eating habits and attitudes to weight and shape. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9, 153–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fallon, A. (1990). Culture in the mirror: Sociocultural determinants of body image. In T. F. Cash, & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 80–109). New Tork: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 1, 117–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flannery-Schroeder, E., & Chrisler, J. C. (1996). Body esteem, eating attitudes, and gender-role orientation in three age groups of children. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 15, 235–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Ogden, C. L., & Johnson, C. L. (2002). Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 1723–1727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franks, T., & Goodrick-Meech, A. (1997). Society’s perceptions of visibly burned adults and the implications for occupational therapy. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60, 320–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frederick, D. A., Peplau, L. A., & Lever, J. (2006). The swimsuit issue: Correlates of body image in a sample of 52,677 heterosexual adults. Body Image, 3, 413–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., Roberts, T. A., Noll, S. M., Quinn, D. M., & Twenge, J. M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 269–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, R. (1984). Reflections on beauty as it relates to health in adolescent females. Women and Health, 9, 29–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Tan, T., & McManus, C. (1997). Waist-to-hip ratio and preferences for body shape: A replication and extension. Personal and Individual Differences, 22, 539–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gapinski, K. D., Brownell, K. D., & LaFrance, M. (2003). Body objectification and ‘fat talk’: Effects on emotion, motivation, and cognitive performance. Sex Roles, 48, 377–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, R. M., Sorter, R. G., & Friedman, B. N. (1997). Developmental changes in children’s body images. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 12, 1019–1036.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner, D. M. (1997, February). Survey says: Body image poll results. Psychology Today. Retrieved September 21, 2006, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19970201-000023.html.

  • Garner, D. M., Garfinkel, P. E., Schwartz, D., & Thompson, M. (1980). Cultural expectations of thinness in women. Psychological Reports, 47, 483–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginsberg, R., & Gray, J. (2007). The muscular ideal: Social, cultural, and psychological perspectives. In J. K. Thompson, & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (2002). Flabless is fabulous: How Latina and Anglo women read and incorporate the excessively thin body ideal into every experience. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 79, 712–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guinness World Records (2006). Online publication at: http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/ Retrived September 25, 2006.

  • Haiken, E. (1997). Venus envy: A history of cosmetic surgery. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2003a). Longer-term implications of responsiveness to ‘thin-ideal’ television: Support for a cumulative hypothesis of body image disturbance? European Eating Disorders Review, 11, 465–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2003b). Female ‘thin ideal’ media images and boys’ attitudes toward girls. Sex Roles, 49, 539–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, K. (2003). Television viewers’ ideal body proportions: The case of the curvaceously thin woman. Sex Roles, 48, 255–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, K., & Cantor, J. (1997). The relationship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47, 40–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, K., & Hefner, V. (2006). Media exposure, current and future body ideals, and disordered eating among preadolescent girls: A longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 153–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, K., Taylor, L. D., & Marske, A. L. (2006). Women’s and men’s eating behaviour following exposure to ideal-body images and text. Communication Research, 33, 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebl, M. R., King, E. B., & Lin, J. (2004). The swimsuit becomes us all: Ethnicity, gender, and vulnerability to self-objectification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1322–1331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinberg, L. J. (1996). Theories of body image: Perceptual, developmental, and sociocultural factors. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment (pp. 27–48). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinberg, L. J., Thompson, J. K., & Stormer, S. (1995). Development and validation of the sociocultural attitudes towards appearance questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 81–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herbozo, S., Tantleff-Dunn, S., Gokee-Larose, J., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Beauty and thinness messages in children’s media: A content analysis. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 12, 21–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hesse-Biber, S. J. (1996). Am I thin enough yet? The cult of thinness and commercialization of identity. New York: Oxford University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hesse-Biber, S., Leavy, P., Quinn, C. E., & Zoino, J. (2006). The mass marketing of disordered eating and eating disorders: The social psychology of women, thinness, and culture. Women’s Studies International Forum, 29, 208–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holstrom, A. J. (2004). The effects of the media on body image: A meta-analysis. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 48, 196–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurd Clarke, L. (2002a). Older women’s perceptions of ideal body weights: The tensions between health and appearance motivations for weight loss. Ageing& Society, 22, 751–773.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurd Clarke, L. (2002b). Beauty in later life: Older women’s perceptions of physical attractiveness. Canadian Journal on Ageing, 21, 429–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irving, L. (1990). Mirror images: Effects of the standard of beauty on the self-and body-esteem of women exhibiting varying levels of bulimic symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 230–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irving, L. M., & Berel, S. R. (2001). Comparison of media-literacy programs to strengthen college women’s resistance to media images. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25(3), 103–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irving, L. M., DuPen, J., & Berel, S. (1998). A media literacy program for high school females. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 6(2), 119–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansen, A., & de Vries, M. (2002). Pre-attentive exposure to the thin female beauty ideal does not affect women’s mood, self-esteem, and eating behaviour. European Eating Disorders Review, 10, 208–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffreys, S. (2005). Beauty and misogyny: Harmful cultural practices in the West. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jourard, S. M., & Secord, P. F. (1955). Body-cathexis and personality. British Journal of Psychology, 46, 130–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katch, V. L., Campaigne, B., Freedson, P., Sayd, S., Katch, F. L., & Behnke, A. R. (1980). Contribution of breast volume and weight to body fat distribution in females. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 53, 93–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katzman, M. A., & Lee, S. (1997). Beyond body image: The integration of feminist transcultural theories in the understanding of self-starvation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22, 385–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krones, P. G., Stice, E., Batres, C., & Orjadam, K. (2005). In vivo social comparison to a thin-ideal peer promotes body dissatisfaction: A randomized experiment. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 38, 134–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunzle, D. (2004). Fashion and fetishism: A social history of the corset, tight-lacing and other forms of body-sculpture in the West. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, J. W., Fauerbach, J. A., Heinberg, L. J., Doctor, M., & Thombs, B. D. (2006). The reliability and validity of the perceived stigmatization questionnaire (PSQ) and the social comfort questionnaire (SCQ) among an adult burn survivor sample. Psychological Assessment, 18, 106–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. (2003). Menarche and the (hetero)sexualization of the female body. In R. Weitz (Ed.), The politics of female bodies: Sexuality, appearance, and behavior (pp. 82–99). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leifer, M. (1977). Psychological changes accompanying pregnancy and motherhood. Genetic Psychological Monographs, 95, 55–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M. P., & Harrison, K. (2004). Media’s role in the perpetuation and prevention of negative body image and disordered eating. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Handbook of eating disorders and obesity (pp. 695–717). New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M. P., & Piran, N. (2004). The role of body image in the prevention of eating disorders. Body Image: An International Journal of Research, 1, 57–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M. P., & Smolak, L. (1996). Media as a context for the development of disordered eating. In L. Smolak, M. P. Levine, & R. Striegel-Moore (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of eating disorders (pp. 183–204). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M. P., & Smolak, L. (2001). Primary prevention of body image disturbances and disordered eating in childhood and early adolescence. In J. K. Thompson, & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment (pp. 237–260). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M. P., & Smolak, L. (2002). Ecological and activism approaches to the prevention of body image problems. In T. F. Cash, & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 497–505). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, C. A. (1998). Use of sex appeals in prime-time television commercials. Sex Roles, 38, 461–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, E., Blix, G. G., & Blix, A. G. (1995). Body image of Latinas compared to body image of non-Latina White women. Health Values: The Journal of Health, Behavior, Education, and Promotion, 19, 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorber, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M. (2001). Disturbances in the social body: Differences in body image and eating problems among African American and white women. Gender & Society, 15, 239–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maisey, D. M., Vale, E. L. E., Cornelissen, P. L., & Tovée, M. J. (1999). Characteristics of male attractiveness for women. Lancet, 353, 1500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makkar, J. K., & Strube, M. J. (1995). Black women’s self-perceptions of attractiveness following exposure to white versus Black beauty standards: The moderating role of racial identity and self-esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 1547–1566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markham, A., Thompson, T., & Bowling, A. (2005). Determinants of body-image shame. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 1529–1541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markson, E. W. (2003). The female aging body through film. In C. Faircloth (Ed.), Aging bodies: Images and everyday experiences (pp. 77–102). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazur, A. (1986). US trends in feminine beauty and overadaptation. Journal of Sex Research, 22, 281–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, M., & Ricciardelli, L. (2003). Sociocultural influences on body image and body changes among adolescent boys and girls. The Journal of Social Psychology, 143, 5–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, M. (1990). The thin ideal, depression, and eating disorders in women. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 205–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinley, N. M. (1999). Women and objectified body consciousness: Mothers’ and daughters;body experience in cultural, developmental, and familial context. Developmental Psychology, 35, 760–769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milkie, M. (1999). Social comparisons, reflected appraisals, and mass media: The impact of pervasive beauty images on black and white girls’ self concepts. Social Psychology Quarterly, 62(2), 190–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miner-Rubino, K., Twenge, J. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2002). Trait self-objectification in women: Affective and personality correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 147–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molloy, B. L., & Herzberger, S. D. (1998). Body image and self-esteem: A comparison of African-American and Caucasian women. Sex Roles, 38, 631–644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., Dirks, D., & Matteson, A. (2005). Roles of sexual objectification experiences and internalization of standards of beauty in eating disorder symptomatology: A test and extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 420–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, K. P. (1991). Women and the knife: Cosmetic surgery and the colonization of women’s bodies. Hypatia, 6, 25–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, D. (1985). Bodywatching: A field guide to the human species. New York: Crown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A., Cooper, T., & Cooper, P. J. (1989). The changing shape of female fashion models. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 8, 593–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murnen, S. K., & Smolak, L. (2000). The experience of sexual harassment among grade-school students: Early socialization of female subordination? Sex Roles, 43, 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murnen, S. K., Smolak, L., Mills, J. A., & Good, L. (2003). Thin, sexy women and strong, muscular men: Grade-school responses to objectified images of women and men. Sex Roles, 49, 427–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagel, K. L., & Jones, K. H. (1992). Sociological factors in the development of eating disorders. Adolescence, 27, 107–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nathanson, A. I., & Botta, R. A. (2003). Shaping the effects of television on adolescents’ body image disturbance. Communication Research, 30, 304–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Eating Disorders Association [NEDA] (2002). Online publication at http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org. Retrieved September 15, 2006.

  • Noll, S. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). A mediational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, K. I., Olds, T. S., Olive, S., & Dank, S. (1996). Ken and Barbie at life size. Sex Roles, 34, 287–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, P. R., & Laurel-Seller, E. (2000). Weight and shape ideals: Thin is dangerously in. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 979–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, S., Nichter, M., Nichter, M., Vuckovic, N., Sims, C., & Ritenbaugh, C. (1995). Body images and weight concerns among African American and white adolescent females: Differences that make a difference. Human Organization, 54, 103–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Partridge, J. (1990). Changing faces: The challenge of facial disfigurement. London: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phares, V., Steinberg, A., & Thompson, J. (2004). Gender differences in peer and parental influences: Body image disturbance, self-worth, and psychological functioning in preadolescent children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 421–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pliner, P., Chaiken, S., & Flett, G. L. (1990). Gender differences in concern with body weight and physical appearance over the life span. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 263–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2004). Sociocultural idealization of thin female body shapes: An introduction to the special issue on body image and eating disorders. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puhl, R. M., & Boland, F. J. (2001). Predicting female physical attractiveness: Waist-to-hip ratio versus thinness. Psychology, Evolution and Gender, 3, 27–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puwar, N. (2004). Space invaders: Race, gender, and bodies out of place. Oxford: Berg Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, D. M., Kallen, R. W., & Cathie, C. (2006). Body on my mind: The lingering effect of state self-objectification. Sex Roles, 55, 869–874.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, D. M., Kallen, R. W., Twenge, J. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). The disruptive effect of self-objectification on performance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 59–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rguibi, M., & Belahsen, R. (2006). Body size preferences and sociocultural influences on attitudes towards obesity among Moroccan Sahraoui women. Body Image, 3, 395–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richins, M. L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 71–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, T., & Gettman, J. Y. (2004). Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification. Sex Roles, 51, 17–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodin, J., Silberstein, L., & Striegel-Moore, R. (1984). Women and weight: A normative discontent. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 32, 267–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, W. J., & Verdi, P. (1993). Exploitation: Comparing sexual and violent imagery of females and males in advertising. Women and Health, 20, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sands, E., & Wardle, J. (2003). Internalization of ideal body shapes in 9–12-year-old girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 193–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schur, E. A., Sanders, M., & Steiner, H. (2000). Body dissatisfaction and dieting in young children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 74–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seid, R. P. (1989). Never too thin: Why women are at war with their bodies. Toronto: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seifert, T. (2005). Anthropometric characteristic of centerfold models: Trends towards slender figures over time. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 37, 271–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shape. (2006). Absolution. Online publication at http://www.shape.com. Retrieved September 27, 2006.

  • Sherwood, L. (1993). Human physiology: From cells to systems. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, B., Peterson, B., & Perdue, L. (1986). Some correlates of the thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5, 895–905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, L. R., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., & Kelly, E. (1986). The role of mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. Sex Roles, 14, 519–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skouteris, H., Carr, R., Wertheim, E. H., Paxton, S. J., & Duncombe, D. (2005). A prospective study of factors that lead to body dissatisfaction during pregnancy. Body Image, 2, 347–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). A test of objectification theory in adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 46, 343–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. M., Mcintosh, W. D., & Bazzini, D. G. (1999). Are the beautiful good in Hollywood? An investigation of the beauty and goodness stereotype on film. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21, 69–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smolak, L. (2006). Body image. In J. Worell, & C. D. Goodheart (Eds.), Handbook of girls’ and women’s psychological health: Gender and well-being across the lifespan. Oxford series in clinical psychology (pp. 69–76). NewYork, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smolak, L., & Levine, M. P. (1994). Critical issues in the developmental psychopathology of eating disorders. In L. Alexander-Mott, & D. B. Lumsden (Eds.), Understanding eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and obesity (pp. 37–60). Philadelphia, PN: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smolak, L., Levine, M., & Schermer, F. (1999). Parental input and weight concerns among elementary school children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 263–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobal, J., & Stunkard, A. J. (1989). Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 260–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, S. E. (1998). On an island by myself: Women of color with facial distinctions. Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation, 19, 268–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, B. L., Henderson, K. A., & Zivian, M. T. (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40, 545–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J., Kumanyika, S. K., & Keil, J. E. (1994). Attitudes towards body size and dieting: Differences between elderly Black and White women. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1322–1325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 825–848.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., & Shaw, H. (2004). Eating disorder prevention programs: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 206–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., & Whitenton, K. (2002). Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls: A longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 38, 669–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., Maxfield, J., & Wells, T. (2003). Adverse effects of social pressure to be thin on young women: An experimental investigation of the effects of ‘fat talk.’ International Journal of Eating Disorders, 34, 108–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., Schupak-Neuberg, E., Shaw, H. E., & Stein, R. I. (1994). Relation of media exposure to eating disorder symptomatology: An examination of mediating mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 836–840.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stormer, S. M., & Thompson, J. K. (1996). Explanations of body image disturbance: A test of maturational status, negative verbal commentary, social comparison, and sociocultural hypotheses. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 193–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strahan, E. J., Wilson, A. E., Cressman, K. E., & Buote, V. M. (2006). Comparing to perfection: How cultural norms for appearance affect social comparisons and self-image. Body Image, 3, 211–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, J., Doyle, A. E., & Kreipe, R. E. (1994). The paradoxical effect of diet commercials on reinhibition of dietary restraint. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 441–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suarez-Orozco, C., & Suarez-Orozco, M. M. (2001). Children of immigration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V. (2007). The Missing Arms of Vénus de Milo: Reflections on the Science of Physical Attractiveness. Brighton: The Book Guild Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Tovée, M. J. (2005). Female physical attractiveness in Britain and Malaysia: A cross-cultural study. Body Image, 2, 115–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sypeck, M. F., Gray, J. J., Etu, S. F., Ahrens, A. H., Mosimann, J. E., & Wiseman, C. V. (2006). Cultural representations of thinness in women, redux: Playboy magazine’s depiction of beauty from 1979 to 1999. Body Image, 3, 229–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K. (1992). Body image: Extent of disturbance, associated features, theoretical models, assessment methodologies, intervention strategies, and

    Google Scholar 

  • a proposal for a new DSM-IV diagnostic category-Body image disorder. In M. Hersen, R. M. Eisler, & P. M. Miller (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification. 28 (pp. 3–54). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., & Cafri, G. (2007). The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 181–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., & Tantleff, S. (1992). Female and male ratings of upper torso: Actual, ideal, andstereotypical conceptions. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 7, 345–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of bodyimage disturbance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., van den Berg, P., Roehrig, M., Guarda, A. S., & Heinberg, L. J. (2004). The Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3): Development and validation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 293–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M. (2002). Media influences on body image development. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 91–98). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M. (2005). Body dissatisfaction and adolescent self-esteem: Prospective findings. Body Image, 2, 129–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J. K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 299–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult women: The role of self-objectification. Developmental Psychology, 37, 243–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Rothblum, E. D. (1997). Gender differences in internal beliefs about weight and negative attitudes towards self and others. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 581–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2003). Thin ideals in music television: A source of social comparison and body dissatisfaction. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 48–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tovée, M. J., & Cornelissen, P. L. (2001). Female and male perceptions of female physical attractiveness in front-view and profile. British Journal of Psychology, 92, 391–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tovée, M. J., Maisey, D. S., Emery, J. L., & Cornelissen, P. L. (1999). Visual cues to female physical attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 266, 211–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tovée, M. J., Swami, V., Furnham, A., & Mangalparsad, R. (2006). Changing perceptions of attractiveness as observers are exposed to a different culture. Evolution and Human behavior, 27, 443–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treloar, C., Porteous, J., Hassan, F., Kasniyah, N., Lakshmandu, M., Sama, M., et al. (1999). The cross cultural context of obesity: An INCLEN multicentre collaborative study. Health and Place, 5, 279–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turkel, A. R. (1998). All about Barbie: Distortions of a transitional object. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, 26, 165–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, S. L., Hamilton, H., Jacobs, M., Angood, L. M., Dwyer, D. H. (1997). The influence of fashion magazines on the body image satisfaction of college women: An exploratory analysis. Adolescence, 32, 603–614.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. (1995). Fact sheet No. 23 on harmful traditional practices affecting the health of women and children. Geneva: United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, R. (2003, March 18). Taking a pregnant pause in media beauty ideals. Retrieved September 21, 2006, from http://www.foxnews.com/story/0, 2933,81456, 00.html.

  • Watterson, B. (1991). Women in ancient Egypt. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wertheim, E. H., Paxton, S. J., & Tilgner, L. (2004). Test-retest reliability and construct validity of Contour Drawing Rating Scale scores in a sample of early adolescent girls. Body Image: An International Journal of Research, 1, 199–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wertheim, E. H., Paxton, S. J., Schutz, H. K., & Muir, S. L. (1997). Why do adolescent girls watch their weight? An interview study examining sociocultural pressures to be thin. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 42, 345–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiseman, C. V., Gray, J. J., Mosimann, J. E., & Ahrens, A. H. (1992). Cultural expectations of women: An update. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 85–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, N. (1991). The beauty myth. New York: William Morrow.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization [WHO]. (2006). Online publication at http://www.who.int/about/en/ Retrieved September 25, 2006.

  • Zones, J. S. (2000). Beauty myths and realities and their impacts on women’s health. In M. B. Zinn, P. Hondagneu-Sotelo, & M. Messner (Eds.), Gender through the prism of difference (2nd ed., pp. 87–103). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Copyright information

© 2007 Rachel M. Calogero, Michael Boroughs, and J. Kevin Thompson

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Calogero, R.M., Boroughs, M., Thompson, J.K. (2007). The Impact of Western Beauty Ideals on the Lives of Women: A Sociocultural Perspective. In: Swami, V., Furnham, A. (eds) The Body Beautiful. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230596887_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics