Abstract
Germany’s foreign and security policy has come under intense international scrutiny since the end of the Cold War. The European Union’s (EU) Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) has been an important institution through which Germany has sought to meet the new foreign policy demands of the post-Cold War era. These pressures have revolved around how Germany can meet the demands of its closest allies, to play an increased role in crisis management and international affairs. This book outlines how successive German governments sought to manage post-Cold War adaptational pressures affecting Germany through the uploading of German preferences to the European and international level. In addition, the analysis outlined here highlights areas in German foreign policy which have come under increasing strain due to the demands placed on Germany stemming from the EU’s CFSP.
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Notes
It is important to note that whilst the international context of German foreign policy changed virtually overnight with the end of the Cold War, the content of German foreign policy was resistant to wholesale changes. To this end Eberwein and Kaiser state, ‘To a certain extent, when Germany was unified and attained full sovereignty, its position in international politics changed overnight’, in Eberwein, W.-D. and Kaiser, K. (eds) (2001), p. 3, Germany’s New Foreign Policy: Decision-making in an Interdependent World (Basingstoke: Palgrave). Banchoff contends that, ‘The collapse of the Soviet bloc and reunification transformed the context of German foreign policy’ in Banchoff, T. (1999), p. 131, The German Problem Transformed: Institutions, Politics and Foreign Policy, 1945–1995 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press).
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Bulmer, S., Jeffery, C. and Paterson, W. E. (2000), Germany’s European Diplomacy: Shaping the Regional Milieu (Manchester: Manchester University Press);
Banchoff, T. (1999), The German Problem Transformed: Institutions, Politics and Foreign Policy, 1945–95 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press).
Bulmer, S. and Paterson, W. E. (1987), The Federal Republic of Germany and the European Community (London: Allen and Unwin);
Bulmer, S. and Paterson, W. E. (1996), ‘Germany in the European Union: Gentle Giant or Emergent Leader?’, International Affairs, 72/1: 9–32;
Bulmer, S., Jeffery, C. and Paterson, W. E. (2000), Germany’s European Diplomacy: Shaping the Regional Milieu (Manchester: Manchester University Press);
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For three excellent studies tackling German conceptions of European security see, Remmert, M. (1994), Westeuropäische Zusammenarbeit in der Sicherheitsund Verteidigungspolitik: Positionen von Regierung und Koalitionsparteien der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (1982–1991), (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlag);
Rühl, L. (1995), Deutschland als Europäische Macht, Bouvier Verlag, Bonn;
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Eliassen, K. A. (ed.) (1998), Foreign and Security Policy in the European Union (London: Sage);
Hill, C. (ed.) (1996), The Actors in Europe’s Foreign Policy (London: Routledge);
Hill, C. (ed.) (1983), National Foreign Policies and European Political Cooperation (Hemel Hempstead: Allen and Unwin); AICGS (1999), Franco-German relations and European Integration: a transatlantic dialogue — Challenges for German and American Foreign Policy, Conference Report, 16th September 1999, American Institute for Contemporary German Studies;
Wyatt-Walter, H. (1997), The European Community and the Security Dilemma, 1979–92 (Basingstoke: Macmillan);
Ifestos, P. (1987), European Political Cooperation: Towards a Framework for Supranational Diplomacy (Aldershot: Avebury);
Carlsnaes, W. and Smith, S. (1993), European Foreign Policy: The EC and Changing Perspectives in Europe (London: Sage);
Howorth, J. and Menon, A. (eds) (1997), The European Union and National Defence Policy (London: Routledge);
Aybet, G. (1997), The Dynamics of European Security Cooperation, 1945–91 (Basingstoke: Macmillan);
Nuttall, S. (1992), European Political Co-operation (Oxford: Clarendon Press);
Regelsberger, E., De Schoutheete de Tervarent, P. and Wessels, W. (eds) (1997), From EPC to CFSP and Beyond (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers);
Tsakaloyannis, P. (1996), The European Union as a Security Community: Problems and Prospects (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlag);
Van Eekelen, W. (1998), Debating European Security, 1948–1998 (The Hague: Sdu Publishers).
Lüdeke, A. (2002), ‘Europäisierung’ der deutschen Auβen- und Sicherheitspolitik? (Opladen: Leske + Budrich)
Schmalz, U. (2004), Deutschlands europäisierte Außenpolitik, VS Verlag, Wiesbaden.
For an excellent survey see, Olsen, J. P. (2002), ‘The Many Faces of Europeanization’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 40/5: 921–952.
For example, Ladrech, R. (1994), ‘Europeanization of Domestic Politics and Institutions: The Case of France’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 32/1: 69–88;
Croft, S. (2000), ‘The EU, NATO and Europeanisation: The Return of Architectural Debate’, European Security, 9/3: 1–20;
Solana, J. (1996), ‘NATO: Shaping up for the future’, Speech to the IISS, 19 September 1996, London, http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/1996/s960919b.htm
Miskimmon, A. J. (2001), ‘Recasting the Security Bargains: Germany, European Security and the Transatlantic Relationship’, in D. Webber, (ed.) New Europe, New Germany, Old Foreign Policy: German Foreign Policy since Unification (London: Frank Cass and Co.).
Cowles, M. G., Caporaso, J. A. and Risse, T. (2001), Transforming Europe: Europeanization and Domestic Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press);
Dyson, K. and Goetz, K. H. (eds) (2003), Germany, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (Oxford: Proceedings of the British Academy/ Oxford University Press);
Ladrech, R. (1994) ‘Europeanization of Domestic Politics and Institutions: The Case of France’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 32/1: 69–88;
Olsen, J. P. (2002), ‘The Many Faces of Europeanization’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 40/5: 921–952;
Tonra, B. (2001), The Europeanisation of National Foreign Policy (Aldershot: Ashgate).
They include, Lüdeke, A. (2002) ‘Europäisierung’ der deutschen Auβen- und Sicherheitspolitik?: Konstitutive und operative Europapolitik zwischen Maastricht und Amsterdam (Opladen: Leske + Budrich);
Manners, I. and Whitman, R. (2001), The Foreign Policies of European Member States (Manchester: Manchester University Press);
Miskimmon, A. and Paterson, W. E. (2003) ‘Foreign and Security Policy: On the Cusp Between Transformation and Accommodation’, in K. Dyson and K. H. Goetz (eds) Germany, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (Oxford: Proceedings of the British Academy/Oxford University Press); Torreblanca, J. I. (2001), ‘Ideas, Preferences and Institutions: Explaining the Europeanization of Spanish Foreign Policy’, Arena Working Papers, WP01/26, University of Oslo.
Rosenau, J. N. (1981), p. 29, The Study of Political Adaptation: Essays on the Analysis of World Politics (London: Frances Pinter).
Gourevitch, P. (1978), p. 882, ‘The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics’, International Organization, 32/4: 881–912.
Rosenau uses the terms adaptation and maladaptation in his study of 1981. Rosenau, J. N. (1981), The Study of Political Adaptation: Essays on the Analysis of World Politics (London: Frances Pinter).
Duffield, J. S. (1998), World Power Forsaken: Political Culture, International Institutions, and German Security Culture after Unification (Stanford: Stanford University Press).
Putnam, R. (1988), ‘Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The logic of two-level games’, International Organisation, 42/3: 427–460.
Key texts include, Anderson, J. J. (2002), ‘Europeanization and the Transformation of the Democratic Polity — 1945–2000’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 41/5: 793–822; Bomberg, E. and Peterson, J. (2000), ‘Policy Transfer and Europeanization: Passing the Heiniken Test?’, Queen’s Papers on Europeanization No.2/2000, Queen’s University, Belfast, http://www.qub.ac.uk/ies/onlinepapers/poe2.html;
Börzel, T. A. (1999), ‘Towards Convergence in Europe? Institutional Adaptation in German and Spain’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 39/4: 573–596;
Börzel, T. A. (2001), The Domestic Impact of Europe: Institutional Adaptation in Germany and Spain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Börzel, T. A. and Risse, T. (2000), ‘When Europe hits home: Europeanization and Domestic Change’, European University Institute, RSC Working Paper, 2000/56;
Goetz, K. H. and Hix, S. (eds) (2001), Europeanised Politics. European Integration and National Political Systems (London: Frank Cass);
Harmsen, R. (1999), ‘The Europeanization of National Administrations: A Comparative Study of France and the Netherlands’, Governance, 12/1: 81–113;
Green-Cowles, M., Caporaso, J. and Risse, T. (2001), Transforming Europe: Europeanization and Domestic Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press);
Dyson, K. (2000a), ‘Europeanization, Whitehall Culture and the Treasury as Institutional Veto Player: A Constructivist Approach to Economic and Monetary Union’, Public Administration, 78/4: 897–914;
Dyson, K. (2000b), ‘EMU as Europeanization: Convergence, Diversity and Contingency’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 38/4: 645–666;
Knill, C. (2001), The Europeanization of National Administrations, Patterns of Institutional Change and Persistence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press);
Kohler-Koch, B. and Eising, R. (eds) (1999), The Transformation of Governance in the European Union (London: Routledge).
Ladrech, R. (1994), ‘Europeanization of Domestic Politics and Institutions: The Case of France’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 32/1: 69–88; Ladrech, R. (2001), ‘Europeanization and Political Parties: Towards a Framework of Analysis’, Queen’s Papers on Europeanization, No.2/2001, Queens University, Belfast. However, Ladrech has more recently appeared to accept the significance of uploading within Europeanisation. See,
Ladrech, R. (2004), p. 64, ‘Europeanization and the Member States’, in M. Green Cowles and D. Dinan (eds) (2004), Developments in the European Union: 2 (Basingstoke: Palgrave), pp. 47–64.
Ladrech, R. (1994), p. 69, ‘Europeanization of Domestic Politics and Institutions: the Case of France’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 32/1: 69–88.
Koenig-Archibugi explains government preferences on institutional change in CFSP by the analysis of four central factors: relative power capabilities, foreign policy interests, Europeanised identities and domestic multilevel governance structures. Koenig-Archibugi, M. (2004), ‘Explaining Government Preferences for Institutional Change in EU Foreign and Security Policy’, International Organization, 58/1: 137–174. This study factors in these four criteria to its analysis of German participation in the development of CFSP.
Dunleavy, P. (1991), Democracy, Bureaucracy and Public Choice, (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheat). Russell Holden has charted the development of the Labour Party’s European Policy in these terms. See,
Holden, R. (2002), The Making of New Labour’s European Policy (Basingstoke: Palgrave). For an analysis of how Member States contribute to the bottom-up aspect of Europeanisation, see also, Beyers, J. and Trondal, J. (2003), ‘How Nation-States “hit” Europe: Ambiguity and Representation in the European Union’, European Integration Online Papers (EIOP), 7/5, http://eiop.or.at/eiop/pdf/2003-005.pdf
Moravcsik, A. (1998) The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State power from Messina to Maastricht (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press);
Moravcsik, A. (1993), ‘Preferences and Power in the European Community: A Liberal Intergovernmentalist Approach’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 31: 473–524.
On this point see, Majone, G. (1989), Evidence, Argument and Persuasion in the Policy Process (New Haven: Yale University Press).
Miskimmon, A. and Paterson, W. E. (2003), ‘Foreign and Security Policy: On the Cusp Between Transformation and Accommodation’, in K. Dyson and K. H. Goetz (eds) Germany, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (Oxford: Proceedings of the British Academy/Oxford University Press), 325–425.
However, Smith has noted some aspects of a legal order creeping into the CFSP process — Smith, M. E. (2001), ‘Diplomacy by Decree: The Legalization of EU Foreign Policy’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 39/1: 79–104. See also,
Tilikainen, T. (2001), ‘To Be or Not To Be?: An Analysis of the Legal and Political Elements of Statehood in the EU’s External Identity’, European Foreign Affairs Review, 6: 223–241.
Moravcsik, A. (1993), ‘Armaments Among Allies: European Weapons Collaboration, 1975–1985’, in P. B. Evans, H. K. Jacobson and R. D. Putnam (eds) Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp.128–168.
For example, Wincott, D. (1995), ‘Institutional Interaction and European Integration: Towards an Everyday Critique of Liberal Intergovernmentalism’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 33: 597–609;
Forster, A. (1998), ‘Britain and the Negotiation of the Maastricht Treaty: A Critique of Liberal Intergovernmentalism’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 36/3: 347–368.
Aggestam, L. (2004), ‘Role Identity and the Europeanisation of Foreign Policy: A Political-Cultural Approach’, in B. Tonra and T. Christiansen (eds) (2004), Rethinking European Foreign Policy (Manchester: Manchester University Press), pp. 81–98;
Lüdeke, A. (2002), Europäisierung der deutschen Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik: Konstitutive und operative Europapolitik zwischen Maastricht und Amsterdam (Opladen: Leske + Budrich); Torreblanca, J. I. (2001). ‘Ideas, Preferences and Institutions: Explaining the Europeanization of Spanish Foreign Policy’, Arena Working Papers, WP01/26, University of Oslo. However, Irondelle paints a more explicit picture of the mechanisms through which Europeanisation occurs. See,
Irondelle, B. (2003), ‘Europeanization Without the European Union? French Military Reforms 1991–96’, Journal of European Public Policy, 10/2: 208–226 and
Rieker, P. (2004), ‘Europeanization of Nordic Security: The European Union and the Changing Security Identities of the Nordic States’, Cooperation and Conflict, 39/4: 369–392.
For example, Lübkemeier, E. (1997), ‘Europäisierung der NATO?’, Die Neue Gesellschaft, Frankfurter Hefte, 44/1: 16–21.
Miskimmon, A. and Paterson, W. E. (2003), ‘Foreign and Security Policy: On the Cusp Between Transformation and Accommodation’ in Dyson, K. and Goetz, K. H. (eds) Germany, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (Oxford: Proceedings of the British Academy/Oxford University Press), pp. 325–425.
Smith, M. E. (2000) ‘Conforming to Europe: the Domestic Impact of EU Foreign Policy Cooperation’, Journal of European Public Policy, 7/4, pp. 613–631. Smith concentrates on European Political Co-operation in this article but the classifications of adaptation which he employs have relevance for CFSP.
Dyson, K. and Goetz, K. H. (eds) (2003) Germany, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (Oxford: Proceedings of the British Academy/Oxford University Press).
Olsen, J. P. (2002), p. 936, ‘The Many Faces of Europeanization’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 40/5: 921–952.
Haftendom, H. (2001), Deutsche Außenpolitik zwischen Selbstbeschränkung und Selbstbehauptung, (Stuttgart und München: DVA Verlag).
Indeed Hellmann describes Germany’s participation in Europe as a ‘symbiotic relationship’ (eine symbiothische Beziehung) Hellmann, G. (2002), ‘Deutschland in Europa: Eine symbiothische Beziehung’, in Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, Beilage zur Wochenzeitung Das Parlament, December 2002, B48/2002: 24–31.
An exception is, Irondelle, B. (2003), ‘Europeanization without the European Union? French Military Reforms 1991–96’, Journal of European Public Policy, 10/2: 208–226. Irondelle outlines indirect pressures, institutional mediations, socialisation and learning as the three key mechanisms of Europeanisation in his study of French military doctrine. Yet, this study focuses on domestic adaptation and not on the ability of the nation-state to influence policy development.
March, J. G. and Olsen, J. P. (2004), ‘The Logic of Appropriateness’, Arena Working Paper, WP04/09, http://www.arena.uio.no/publications/wp04_9.pdf. See also, their landmark work, March, J. G. and Olsen, J. P. (1989), Rediscovering Institutions (New York: Free Press).
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Smith, M. E. (2004), ‘Institutionalization, Policy Adaptation and European Foreign Policy Co-operation’, European Journal of International Relations, 10/1: 95–136;
Smith, M. E. (2004), Europe’s Foreign and Security Policy: The Institutionalization of Co-operation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
See, Checkel, J. T. (1999), ‘Norms, Institutions and National Identity in Contemporary Europe’, International Studies Quarterly, 43/1: 83–114. Checkel highlights the importance of ‘norm diffusion’ as part of this socialisation/social learning process. On the conditions for the successful acceptance of a norm, Kratochwil states, ‘The decisive criterion is whether direct communication takes places among the parties in regard to the norm, or whether its operation is unilaterally inferred or imputed from each others’ actions’, see,
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Hill, C. (2003), The Changing Politics of Foreign Policy (Basingstoke: Palgrave), pp. 262–268.
The final aspect of exaggerated multilateralism/institution building draws on Nina Phillipi’s concept of ‘salami tactics’ where Germany seeks to achieve policy objectives with small, incremental steps. Philippi, N. (1997), Bundeswehr-Auslandseinsätze als aufβen- und sicherheitspolitisches Problem des geeinten Deutschland (Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang Verlag)
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See, Hayes-Renshaw, F. and Wallace, H. (1996), The Council of Ministers, (Basingstoke: Macmillan);
Tallberg, J. (2003), ‘The Agenda-shaping Powers of the EU Council Presidency’, Journal of European Public Policy, 10/1: 1–19.
See, Larsen, H. (1997), Foreign Policy and Discourse Analysis: France, Britain and Europe (London: Routledge);
Larsen, H. (2004), ‘Discourse Analysis in the Study of European Foreign Policy’, in B. Tonra and T. Christiansen (eds) Rethinking European Union foreign policy (Manchester: Manchester University Press), pp. 62–80. Also
Howorth, J. (2004), ‘Discourse, Ideas and Epistemic Communities in European Security and Defence Policy’, West European Politics, 27/2: 211–234.
Miskimmon, A. and Paterson, W. E. (2003), ‘Foreign and Security Policy: On the Cusp Between Transformation and Accommodation’, in K. Dyson and K. H. Goetz (eds) German, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (Oxford: Proceedings of the British Academy/Oxford University Press), pp. 325–345.
Genscher, H.-D. (1998), Rebuilding a House Divided (New York: Broadway Books).
Bulmer, S. and Paterson, W. E. (1987), p. 44, The Federal Republic of Germany and the European Community, (London: Allen and Unwin). Musterknabe can also have the connotation of ‘swat’ or of being ‘out of touch with reality’, which is illuminating the dichotomous attitude often displayed by Germany in CFSP affairs. Interview with German Civil Servant, Auswärtiges Amt, Berlin, 7 July 2003.
Siwert-Probst, J. (2001), p. 19, ‘Traditional Institutions of Foreign Policy’, in W.-D. Eberwein and K. Kaiser (eds) Germany’s New Foreign Policy: Decision-making in an Interdependent World (Basingstoke: Palgrave), pp. 19–37.
For more information on the role and organisation of the German Foreign Ministry, see, Brandt, E. and Buck, C. (2002), Auswärtiges Amt: Diplomatie als Beruf, 2. Auflage (Opladen: Leske + Budrich).
Miskimmon, A. and Paterson, W. E. (2003) ‘Foreign and Security Policy: On the Cusp Between Transformation and Accommodation’, Dyson, K. and Goetz, K. H. (eds), German, Europe and the Politics of Constraint (Oxford: Proceedings of the British Academy/Oxford University Press), pp. 325–345.
See, Bulmer, S. and Paterson, W. E. (1987), The Federal Republic of Germany and the European Community (London: Allen and Unwin);
Bulmer, S. and Paterson, W. E. (1996), ‘Germany in the European Union: Gentle Giant or Emergent Leader?’, International Affairs, 72: 9–32;
Bulmer, S., Maurer, A. and Paterson, W. E. (2001), ‘The European Policy Machinery in the Bonn Republic: Hindrance or Handmaiden?’, German Politics, 10/1: 177–206;
Katzenstein, P. (1987), Policy and Politics in West Germany: The Growth of a Semi-Sovereign State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press);
Johnson, N. (1983), State and Government in the Federal Republic of Germany: The Executive at Work, 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press)
Derlien, H.-U. (2000), ‘Failing Successfully?’, in K. Kassim, B. G. Peters and V. Wright (eds) The National Co-ordination of EU Policy: The Domestic Level (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 54–78;
Maurer, A. and Wessels, W. (2001), ‘The German Case: A key Moderator in a Competitive Multi-level Environment’, in H. Kassim, A. Menon, B. G. Peters and V. Wright (eds) The National Coordination of EU Policy: The European Level (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 101–128.
Kassim, H. (2001) ‘Representing the United Kingdom in Brussels: The Fine Art of Positive Co-Ordination’, in Kassim, H., Menon, A., Peters, B. G. and Wright, V. (eds) The National Co-Ordination of EU Policy: The European Level (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 47–74.
Axel Lüdeke also makes the important distinction between constitutive and operative policy in German CFSP. Lüdeke, A. (2002) ‘Europäisierung’ der deutschen Auβen- und Sicherheitspolitik?: Konstitutive und operative Europapolitik zwischen Maastricht und Amsterdam, (Opladen: Leske und Budrich).
Interviews in the Ständige Vertretung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Brussels 2nd and 3rd July 2003. Maurer and Wessels pinpoint the ineffectiveness of Germany’s Permanent Representation to the European Union as being down to difficulties arising from the vertical and horizontal diffusion of power in Germany which is out of step with the policy-making style in Brussels. Maurer, A. and Wessels, W. (2000), ‘Die Ständige Vertretung Deutschlands bei der EU — Scharnier im administrativen Mehrebenensystem’, in B. Kohler-Koch and M. Knodt (Hrsg.) Deutschland zwischen Europäisierung und Selbstbehauptung (Frankfurt/Main: Campus), pp. 293–324.
Wallace, H. and Wallace, W. (1996), p. 427, Policy-making in the European Union, 3rd Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Cited in Wyatt-Walter, H. (1997), p. 202, The European Community and the Security Dilemma, 1979–92 (Basingstoke: Macmillan).
Bulmer, S., Jeffery, C. and Paterson, W. E. (2000), p. 78, Germany’s European Diplomacy: Shaping the Regional Milieu (Manchester: Manchester University Press).
Hill, C. (1993), ‘The Capabilities-expectations Gap or Conceptualising Europe’s International Role’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 31/3: 305–328. See also,
Hill, C. (1998), ‘Closing the Capabilities-expectation Gap?’, in J. Peterson and H. Sjursen (eds) A Common Foreign Policy for Europe? Competing Visions of the CFSP (London: Routledge);
Ginsberg, R. H. (1999), ‘Conceptualizing the European Union as an International Actor: Narrowing the Capability-Expectations Gap’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 37/3: 429–454.
Smith, M. (2001), p. 297, ‘The EU as an International Actor’, in J. Richardson (ed.) European Union: Power and Policy-making (London: Routledge), pp. 283–301. See also, Elgstöm, O. and Smith, M. (eds) (2001), ‘Negotiation and Policy-making in the European Union: Process, System, Order’, Special Issue of the Journal of European Public Policy, 7/5.
Hill, C. (1993), ‘The Capability-expectations Gap, or Conceptualising Europe’s International Role’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 31/3: 305–328.
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Miskimmon, A. (2007). Introduction. In: Germany and the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union. New Perspectives in German Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230591523_1
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