Abstract
Up to 2 million civilians in the Austro-Hungarian Empire were internally displaced between 1914 and 1918, the equivalent number of displaced civilians in France for the same period and almost a third of the total displaced in Russia before 1917.1 This chapter shows how the displacement of Austria-Hungary’s wartime refugees from the eastern and southern peripheries of the empire contributed both to the empire’s collapse and to the legitimacy of post-imperial successor states in East Central Europe. It argues that by creating social and economic categories — nationality, religion and class — the multinational state unwittingly nationalized its own citizens and gave legitimacy to nationalists who sought to claim non-national people for their political projects of liberation from imperial rule. Not only the state and its agencies, but also the various groups and politicians who sought to represent the refugees as co-nationals, each claimed the displaced. International actors after the war also made claims on the displaced as part of their larger humanitarian mission in the region. Therefore, the discourses about and responses to wartime displacement — what Peter Gatrell has called ‘refugeedom’ in the case of Tsarist Russia — were the very process by which the empire itself was displaced and replaced by nationalizing successor states.2
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Notes
Walter Mentzel, ‘Kriegsflüchtlinge in Cisleithania im Ersten Weltkrieg’ (Unpublished University of Vienna PhD thesis, 1997), p. 447. On the comparisons with other belligerent states, see Matthew Stibbe, ‘Introduction: Captivity, Forced Labour and Forced Migration during the First World War,’ Immigrants and Minorities, vol. 26 (2008), pp. 1–2.
Peter Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I (Bloomington, IN, 1999).
In addition to Gatrell, see also Josh Sanborn, ‘Unsettling the Empire: Violent Migrations and Social Disaster in Russia during World War I’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 77 (2005), pp. 290–324. The recent comparative volumes on population displacement and forced migration and captivity in Contemporary European History, vol. 16, no. 4 (2007), and Immigrants and Minorities, vol. 26, no. 1 (2008), respectively, show that wartime displacement is increasingly becoming an important theme in new scholarship on World War One.
Eric D. Weitz, ‘From the Vienna to the Paris System: International Politics and the Entangled Histories of Human Rights, Forced Deportations, and Civilizing Missions,’ American Historical Review, vol. 113 (2008), pp. 1313–43 (quote is on pp. 1323–5). On German subjugation or ‘tutelage’ of non-Germans in German-occupied Baltic territory, see Vejas G. Liulevicius, War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity and German Occupation in World War I (Cambridge, 2000).
Rudolf Jeřábek, ‘The Eastern Front’, in Mark Cornwall, ed., The Last Years of Austria-Hungary: A Multi-National Experiment in Early Twentieth Century Europe, Revised and Expanded Edition (Exeter, 2002), pp. 149–65. See also Matthew Hughes and William J. Philpott, The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of the First World War (Basingstoke, 2005), Map 8: The War between Austria-Hungary and Russia.
Matthew Stibbe, ‘Civilian Internment and Civilian Internees in Europe, 1914–20’, Immigrants and Minorities, vol. 26 (2008), pp. 61–4.
David Rechter, The Jews of Vienna and the First World War (Oxford, 2001), pp. 69–71.
Katharina Stampler, ‘Flüchtlingswesen in der Steiermark 1914–1918’, (unpublished University of Graz Ph.D thesis, 2004), pp. 20, 23.
Michael Marrus has pointed out that the complete statistical data on refugees is impossible to obtain since refugees were excluded from census counts and the definition of who was a refugee varied in every country. See Michael Marrus, The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century (Oxford, 1985), pp. 12–13.
Hungary was providing provisional accommodation for more than 30,000 refugees by mid-1915, at Austria’s expense. See Rechter, Jews of Vienna, pp. 80–1, and also Beatrix Hoffmann-Holter, ‘Abreisendmachung’: Jüdische Kriegsflüchtlinge in Wien 1914 bis 1923 (Vienna, 1995), p. 34.
Wilhelm Winkler, Die Einkommensverschiebungen in Österreich während des Weltkrieges (Vienna, 1930), pp. 25–6.
On wartime and post-waranti-Semitic stereotypes, see Hoffmann-Holter, ‘Abreisendmachung’ and Bruce Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992).
Studies of the Bohemian Lands have shown how local bureaucracy, small town political elites, imperial demographers and nationalist organizations all sought to categorize and group the ‘non-national’ peoples in the multinational empire. See, for example, Gary Cohen, The Politics of Ethnic Survival: Germans in Prague, 1861–1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1981); Jeremy King, Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848–1948 (Princeton, NJ, 2003); Pieter Judson, Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria (Cambridge, MA, 2006); and Tara Zahra, Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900–1948 (Ithaca, NY, 2008).
For the definition of ‘objective’ criteria in nationality claims, see Gerald Stourzh, ‘Ethnic Attribution in Late Imperial Austria: Good Intentions, Evil Consequences’, in Edward Timms and Ritchie Robertson, eds, The Habsburg Legacy: National Identity in Historical Perspective (Edinburgh, 1994).
Hermann J. W. Kuprian, ‘“Entheimatungen”: Flucht und Vertreibung in der Habsburgermonarchie während des Ersten Weltkrieges und ihre Konsequenzen’, in Kuprian and Oswald Überreger, eds, Der Erste Weltkriegim Alpenraum: Erfahrung, Deutung, Erinnerung (Innsbruck, 2006), p. 300.
This practice of concealing nationality led to inflated statistics of German-speaking officers and soldiers so that military figures do not accurately reflect the linguistic diversity of the multinational army. See Jeřábek, ‘The Eastern Front’, p. 151, citing the work of István Deák, Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1992).
Österreichische Rundschau, vol. 45 (1915), cited in Mentzel, ‘Kriegsflüchtlinge in Cisleithania’, p. 331.
Francesca Wilson, In the Margins of Chaos: Recollections of Relief Work in and between Three Wars (London, 1944).
Ibid., p. 42.
Walter Mentzel, ‘Weltkriegsflüchtlinge in Cisleithanien 1914–1918’, in Gernot Heiss and Oliver Rathkolb, eds, Asylland Wider Willen: Flüchtlinge im europäischen Kontext seit 1914 (Vienna, 1995), p. 40[note 2].
Harald Binder, Galizien in Wien: Parteien, Wahlen, Fraktionen und Abgeordneteim Übergangzur Massenpolitik (Vienna, 1995), pp. 493, 503.
Gatrell, ‘Introduction: World Wars and Population Displacement in Europe in the Twentieth Century’, Contemporary European History, vol. 16 (2007), pp. 415–26. Interestingly, the debate about refugees as passive or capable of self-help initiatives mirrors the recent historiographical debates about Jewish responses to the Holocaust and the evidence of Jewish self-help networks that are only just starting to be written into the dichotomous accounts of victims and perpetrators.
See Anton Staudinger, ‘Austrofaschistische “Österreich”-Ideologie’, in Emmerich Tálos and Wolfgang Neugebauer, eds, ‘Austrofaschismus’: Politik-Ökonomie-Kultur 1933–1938, 5th edn (Vienna 2005), pp. 28–52.
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© 2011 Julie Thorpe
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Thorpe, J. (2011). Displacing Empire: Refugee Welfare, National Activism and State Legitimacy in Austria-Hungary in the First World War. In: Panayi, P., Virdee, P. (eds) Refugees and the End of Empire. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230305700_5
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