Abstract
The death, destruction and displacement wrought by the Second World War are topics of undiminished interest to historians and to a wider public. The historiography frequently emphasises the transformative impact of the war in Europe, not only in terms of territorial adjustment but also in a series of social calamities, including the destruction of European Jewry, huge military losses (particularly in Soviet Russia), the rupturing of social ties in Central and Eastern Europe where social upheaval prefigured the formation of Communist governments, and the mass expulsion of people who were deemed not to ‘belong’.1 Recent scholarship suggests that these calamities had antecedents in programmes, practices and ideologies that can be traced back to the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when the state entertained ideas about social and demographic engineering and population management, by conceiving of a ‘social body’. The modern state’s pursuit of perfection through reshaping social organisation and refashioning behaviour culminated in organised efforts to rid society of unwanted elements that did not correspond to that utopian vision.2 These projects, as is well known, came to terrible fruition in Hitler’s European empire.3 The 1940s also witnessed continued Soviet social and ethnic cleansing. The Bolshevik leadership targeted class enemies and engaged in a series of mass deportations, whose purpose was both punitive and developmental, in that remote regions of the Soviet land mass were opened up for economic transformation.
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A. J. Rieber (2000) (ed.) Forced Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, 1939–1950 (London: Frank Cass);
P. Ther and A. Siljak (2001) (eds) Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948 (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefleld);
N. Naimark (2001), Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press);
R. Bessel and D. Schumann (2003) (eds) Life after Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History during the 1940s and 1950s (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press);
S. B. Várdy and T. Hunt Tooley (2003) (eds) Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (New York: Columbia University Press);
J. Corsellis and M. Farrar (2005) Slovenia 1945: Memories of Death and Survival after World War II (London: I. B. Tauris);
R. Melville, J. Pesek and C. Scharf (2007) (eds) Zwangsmigrationen im mittleren und östlichen Europa: Völkerrecht, Konzeptionen, Praxis 1938–1950 (Mainz: Von Zabern);
G. Corni and T. Stark (2008) (eds) People on the Move: Population Fransfers and Ethnic Cleansing Policies during World War II and Its Aftermath (Oxford: Berg).
A. Weiner (2003) (ed.) Landscaping the Human Garden: Twentieth-Century Population Management in a Comparative Framework (Stanford: Stanford University Press).
Many of the contributors to this collection of essays acknowledge a debt to social theorists including H. Arendt (1958) The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Brace)
and Z. Bauman (1991) Modernity and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Polity Press),
and to historians of other societies such as M. Poovey (1995) Making a Social Body (Chicago: Chicago University Press)
and D. Horn (1994) Social Bodies: Science, Reproduction and Italian Modernity (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
M. Mazower (2008) Hitler’s Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe (London: Allen Lane);
I. Kershaw (2008) Hitler, the Germans and the Final Solution (London: Yale University Press).
T. Martin (1998) ‘The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, Journal of Modern History, LXX, no. 4, pp. 813–61;
T. Martin (2001), ‘Stalinist Forced Relocation Policies: Patterns, Causes, Consequences’, in M. Weiner and S. Russell (eds) Demography and National Security (New York: Berghahn), pp. 305–39;
P. Holquist (2001) ‘“To Remove” and “to Exterminate Totally”: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia’, in R. G. Suny and T. Martin (eds) A State of Nations. Empire and Nation-Building in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 111–44;
M. Geyer (1989) ‘The Militarization of Europe, 1914–1945’, in J. Gillis (ed.), The Militarization of the World (New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press), pp. 65–102.
For a starting point see M. Mazower (2002) ‘Violence and the State in the Twentieth Century’, American Historical Review, CVII, no. 4, pp. 1158–78;
I. Hull (2004), Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany (Ithaca: Cornell University Press);
J. Zimmerer (2005) ‘The Birth of the Ostland out of the Spirit of Colonialism: A Postcolonial Perspective on the Nazi Policy of Conquest and Extermination’, Patterns of Prejudice, XXXIX (2), pp. 197–219.
M. Mazower (1998) Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane),
and T. Judt (2005) Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (London: Heinemann).
See also P. Holquist (2003) ‘New Terrains and New Chronologies: The Interwar Period through the Lens of Population Politics’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, IV (1), pp. 163–75.
For an approach along these lines see N. P. Baron and P. Gatrell (2003) ‘Population Displacement, State-Building and Social Identity in the Lands of the Former Russian Empire, 1917–1923’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History IV (1), pp. 51–100.
The exception was E. M. Kulischer (1948) Europe on the Move: War and Population Changes 1914–47 (New York: Columbia University Press) who analysed migratory processes from a neo-Malthusian perspective.
See also J. B. Schechtman (1946) European Population Transfers 1939–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press);
J. Vernant (1953) The Refugee in the Post-War World (New Haven: Yale University Press);
L. W. Holborn (1956), The International Refugee Organization: A Specialized Agency of the United Nations, Its History and Work, 1946–1952 (London & New York: Oxford University Press);
M. Proudfoot (1957) European Refugees, 1939–1952: A Study in Torced Population Movement (London: Faber and Faber);
G. Ginsbergs (1957) ‘The Soviet Union and the Problems of Refugees and Displaced Persons, 1917–1956’, American Journal of International Law LI (2), pp. 325–61.
See the discussion in R. Moeller (2001) War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Tederai Republic of Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 51–87.
The Polish government distinguished between ‘repatriants’ from Ukraine and Lithuania, and ‘displaced persons’ (przesiedleńcy) who were resettled from central provinces to the newly acquired western territory. Key works on these topics include K. Kersten (1974) Repatriacja ludności polskiej po II wojnie swiatowej: Studium historyczne (Wroclaw: Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich);
S. Banasiak (1963) Dziatalność osadnicza Państwowego Urze du Repatriacyjnego na Ziemiach Odzyskanych w latach 1945–1947 (Poznań: Instytut Zachodni);
and J. Czerniakiewicz (1987) Repatriacja ludności polskiej z ZSRR, 1944–1948 (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnicestwo Naukowe).
On the implementation of the 1944 agreement, see I. F. Evseev (1962) Sotrudnichestvo Ukrainskoi SSR i Pol’skoi Narodnoi Republiki 1944–1960gg. (Kiev: AN USSR).
W. Isajiw, Y Boshyk and R. Senkus (1992) (eds) The Refugee Experience: Ukrainian Displaced Persons after World War 2 (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press), the proceedings of a series of conferences that took place in the 1980s;
W. Jacobmeyer (1985) Vom Zwangsarbeiter zum Heimatlosen Ausländer: Die Displaced Persons in Westdeutschland 1945–1951 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht).
M. Marrus (1985) The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press);
M. Wyman (1985) DP: Europe’s Displaced Persons, 1945–1951 (London: Associated University Press);
G. Noiriel (1991) La tyrannie du national: le droit d’asile en Europe, 1793–1993 (Paris: Calmann-Lévy).
See also A. Bramwell (1988) (ed.) Refugees in the Age of Total War (London: Unwin Hyman).
L. Malkki (1992) ‘National Geographic: Rooting of Peoples and the Territorialisation of National Identity among Scholars and Peoples’, Cultural Anthropology VII (1), pp. 24–44;
L. Malkki (1995) ‘Refugees and Exile: From “Refugee Studies” to the National Order of Things’, Annual Review of Anthropology, XXIV, pp. 495–523;
L. Malkki (1996) ‘Speechless Emissaries: Refugees, Humanitarianism, and Dehistoricization’, Cultural Anthropology XI (3), pp. 377–404. Barbara Harrell-Bond, Elizabeth Colson and others also carried out pioneering work.
G. Rystad (1990) The Uprooted: Forced Migration as an International Problem in the Post-War Era (Lund: Lund University Press);
K. Salomon (1991) Refugees in the Cold War: Toward a New International Refugee Regime in the Early Postwar Era (Lund: Lund University Press);
G. Loescher (2001) The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
In addition to references cited above, see J. Gross (1997) ‘War as Revolution’, in N. Naimark and L. Gibianskii (eds) The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe (Boulder: Westview Press), pp. 17–40;
J. Gross (2002) Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland’s Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton: Princeton University Press);
A. Weiner (2001) Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press);
T. Snyder (2003) The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 (New Haven: Yale University Press);
K. Brown (2004) A Biography of No Place: From Ethnic Borderland to Soviet Heartland (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).
The historical geographer Pavel Polian has made a significant contribution to our knowledge of forced population movements in the Soviet Union. P. M. Polian (2001) Ne po svoei vole: istoriia i geografiia prinuditeľ nykh migratsii v SSSR (Moscow: OGI).
A. Becker (1998) Oubliés de la grande guerre: Humanitaire et culture de guerre. Populations occupées, déportés civils, prisonniers de guerre (Paris: Hachette);
P. Gatrell (1999) A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War 1 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press);
V. G. Liulevicius (2000) War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity and German Occupation in World War I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); B. Hoffmann-Holter, ‘Abreisendmachung’: Jüdische Kriegsflüchtlinge in Wien 1914 bis 1923 (Vienna: Böhlau);
M. Ermacora (2007) ‘Assistance and Surveillance: War Refugees in Italy, 1914–1918’, Contemporary European History, XVI (4), pp. 445–60;
J. Oltmer (1998) ‘Arbeitszwang und Zwangsarbeit — Kriegsgefangene und ausländische Zivilarbeitskräfte im Ersten Weltkrieg’, in R. Spilker and B. Ulrich (eds), Der Tod als Maschinist. Der industrialzimmisierte Krieg, 1914–1918 (Bramsche: Rasch Verlag), pp. 96–107;
A. Prusin (2005) Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914–1920 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press).
See also M. Geyer (2006) ‘Endkampf 1918 and 1945: German Nationalism, Annihilation and Self-Destruction’, in A. Lüdtke and B. Weisbrod (eds) No Man’s Land of Violence: Extreme Wars in the 20th Century (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag), pp. 37–67.
J. B. Schechtman (1949) Population Transfers in Asia (New York: Hallsby Press).
The debates and tensions are examined by R Cooper (1996) Decolonization and African Society: The Labour Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
The classic study of forced labour in Europe is U. Herbert (1997) Hitler’s Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labour in Germany under the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), first published in German in 1985.
E. Lohr (2001) ‘The Russian Army and the Jews: Mass Deportations, Hostages, and Violence during World War I’, Russian Review, LX (3), pp. 404–19;
N. Naimark (2001) ‘Ethnic Cleansing between War and Peace’, in Weiner (ed.) Landscaping the Human Garden, pp. 218–35;
P. Gatrell (2008) ‘Refugees and Forced Migrants during the First World War’, Immigrants and Minorities, 26(1), pp. 82–110.
In addition to the references above, see S. Redlich (2002) Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press);
A. Weiner (2001) ‘When Memory Counts: War, Genocide and Postwar Soviet Jewry’, in Weiner (ed.) Landscaping the Human Garden, pp. 167–88.
Soviet officials combined punitive and economic motives in their plan to conscript five million German workers to produce goods and services for the USSR worth up to $40 billion, a figure that Stalin scaled back to $10 billion at Yalta. V. Zubok and C. Pleshakov (1996) Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), p. 31.
On German POWs in Russia see Moeller, War Stories, pp. 88–122; on Soviet POWs in Germany, see P. Polian (2001) Deportiert nach Hause: sowjetische Kriegsgefangene im “Dritten Reich” und ihre Repatriierung (München: Oldenbourg).
On Polish deportees, see P. Polian (2005) ‘Optatsii: s kem i kogda v XX veke Rossiia obmenivalas’ naseleniem’, in O. Glezer and P. Polian (eds) Rossiia i ee regiony v XX veke: territoriia — rasselenie — migratsiia (Moscow: OGI), pp. 536–44.
On violence after 1918, see R. Gerwarth (2008) ‘The Central European Counterrevolution: Paramilitary Violence in Germany, Austria and Hungary after the Great War’, Past and Present, 200(1), pp. 175–209;
P. Gatrell (2008) ‘War after the War: Conflicts, 1918–1923’, in J. Horne (ed.) Blackwell Companion to the First World War (London: Blackwell), pp. 558–75.
On Kielce, see J. Gross (2006) Fear: Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz: An Essay in Historical Interpretation (New York: Random House), pp. 81–117.
On Ukraine, see J. Burds (2001) ‘The Early Cold War in Soviet West Ukraine, 1944–1948’, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies no. 1505 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh).
The impact of the Greek civil war is traced in M. Mazower (2000) (ed.) After the War was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943–1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press)
and in L. M. Danforth (2003) ‘“We Crossed a Lot of Borders”: Refugee Children of the Greek Civil War’, Diaspora XII (2), pp. 169–209.
See the essays by Frank, Gousseff and Schulze in this book, as well as B. Frommer (2005) National Cleansing: Retribution against Nazi Collaborators in Post-War Czechoslovakia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Kulischer, Europe on the Move, pp. 149–51, 168–9; I. Mocsy (1983) The Uprooted: Hungarian Refugees and Their Impact on Hungary’s Domestic Politics, 1918–1921 (New York: Columbia UP);
R. Hirschon (2003) (ed.) Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey (London: Berghahn).
O. Subtelny (2001) ‘Expulsion, Resettlement, Civil Strife: the Fate of Poland’s Ukrainians, 1944–1947’, in Ther and Siljak (eds), Redrawing Nations, pp. 155–72;
P. R. Magocsi (2002) Historical Atlas of Central Europe, 2nd edn (London: Thames and Hudson), pp. 190–3; Kulischer, Europe on the Move, pp. 286, 291–2. These figures omit internal resettlement.
P. Ther (1998) Deutsche und Polnische Vertriebene: Gesellschaft und Vertriebenenpolitik in der SBZ/DDR und in Polen 1945–1956 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht).
D. P. Gaines (1966) The World Council of Churches: A Study of Its Background and History (Peterborough, NH: R.R. Smith), pp. 315–16.
J. Wróbel (1993) ‘Z dziejow polskiego uchodztwa w rodezji polnocnej (Zambii) w okresie II wojny swiatowej’, Przeglad Polonijny, XIX (3), pp. 133–45. Some 4000 were placed in a camp at Tengeru.
L. Goverdovskaia (2004) Obshchestvenno-politicheskaia i kulturnaia deiatel’nosť russkoi emigratsii v Kitae v 1917–1931 gg. (Moscow: MADI);
M. R. Ristaino (2001) Port of Last Resort: The Diaspora Communities of Shanghai (Stanford: Stanford University Press). During World Refugee Year, 1959–60, the UN publicised the plight of elderly White Russians in China.
M. Dyczok (2000) The Grand Alliance and Ukrainian Refugees (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 123;
Proudfoot, European Refugees, p. 256; J. G. Stoessinger (1956) The Refugee and the World Community (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press), pp. 68–71.
C. Skran (1995) Refugees in Inter-War Europe: The Emergence of a Regime (Oxford: Clarendon Press);
A. Zolberg, A. Suhrke and S. Aguayo (1989) Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World (New York: Oxford University Press).
Fonds Nansen, Box 1750, doc. 34280, Bulgarian Chargé d’Affaires, Berne, to Nansen, 28 February 1924. Bulgaria was also concerned about the presence of several thousand Armenian refugees. See T. Dragostinova (2006) ‘Competing Priorities, Ambiguous Loyalties: Challenges of Socioeconomic Adaptation and National Inclusion of the Interwar Bulgarian Refugees’, Nationalities Papers, XXXIV (5), pp. 549–74.
P. Ballinger (2007) ‘Borders of the Nation, Borders of Citizenship: Italian Repatriation and the Redefinition of National Identity after World War II’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, XL (3), pp. 713–41, and her essay in this volume.
M. Wulf (2009) ‘Locating Estonia: Perspectives from Exile and Homeland’, in P. Gatrell and N. P. Baron (eds), Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in Soviet Eastern Europe, 1945–1950 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 231–54.
Fonds Nansen, Box C1586 doc. 17729, Fox to Nansen, 7 January 1930. See also P. Gatrell (2007), ‘Displacing and Re-Placing Population in the Two World Wars: Armenia and Poland Compared’, Contemporary European History, XVI (4), pp. 511–27.
H. Carter (1949) The Refugee Problem in Europe and the Middle East (London: Epworth Press), pp. 5, 19, 32, with a foreword by Simpson and including quotations from Rees.
British views are set out in M. Frank (2008) Expelling the Germans: British Opinion and Post-1945 Population Transfer in Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
G. Swain (2003) ‘Deciding to Collectivise Latvian Agriculture’, Europe-Asia Studies, LV (1), pp. 39–58.
B. Linek (2001) ‘“De-Germanisation” and “Re-Polonisation” in Upper Silesia, 1945–50’, in Ther and Siljak (eds), Redrawing Nations, pp. 121–34.
K. Malicki (1961) ‘Zielonogórskie wspominki’, in A. Kwilecki (ed.), Mój dom nad Odra, vol. 1 (Poznań: Instytut Zachodni), pp. 78–9. Thanks to Chris Lash for this reference and other advice.
G. Thum (2003) Die fremde Stadt: Breslau 1945 (Munich: Siedler Verlag).
Thum, Die fremde Stadt, pp. 185–94, 260–6 (‘Wild West’). The daily struggle of Berliners to survive the aftermath of war is one theme of P. Steege (2007) Black Market, Cold War: Everyday Life in Berlin, 1946–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Quoted in G. Swain (2004) Between Stalin and Hitler: Class War and Race War on the Dvina, 1940–46 (London: Routledge), p. 157.
M. Fleming (2007) ‘Seeking Labour’s Aristocracy: The “Westphalian Incident” and Polish Nationality Policy in the Immediate Aftermath of War’, Nations and Nationalism, XIII (3), pp. 461–79. The Polish position was that Westphalian Poles had been forced by poor economic conditions in the interwar period to seek work in Germany, whereas the British argued that they had ‘enjoyed German nationality’ for more than a century.
Quotation from M. McNeill (1950) By the Rivers of Babylon: A Story of Relief Work among the Displaced Persons of Europe (London: Bannisdale Press), pp. 202–16.
In addition to chapters in this book by Steinert and Salvatici, see L. McDowell (2005) Hard Labour: The Hidden Voices of Latvian Migrant ‘Volunteer’ Workers (London: UCL Press).
In addition to Salomon, Refugees in the Cold War, and Holborn, International Refugee Organization, pp. 152, 162–5, see J. Reinisch (2008) ‘Introduction: Relief in the Aftermath of War’, Journal of Contemporary History XL (3), pp. 371–404 and the other essays in this special issue.
Sir J. H. Simpson (1939) The Refugee Problem: Report of a Survey (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 172–90; Skran, Refugees in Inter-War Europe, pp. 78–83. Zemgor brought together the pre-revolutionary Russian Union of Towns and Union of Zemstvos;
its post-war activities are described in C. Gousseff and O. Pichon-Bobrinskoy (2005) ‘The Invention of a Humanitarian Policy: Russian Refugees and Zemgor, 1921–1930’, Cahiers du monde russe, XLVI (4), pp. 667–72.
J-D. Steinert (2007) Nach Holocaust und Zwangsarbeit: Britische humanitäre Hilfe in Deutschland (Secolo Verlag: Osnabrück).
See also P. Gatrell (2007) ‘World Wars and Population Displacement in Europe in the Twentieth Century’, Contemporary European History, XVI (4), pp. 415–26;
P. Gatrell (2009) ‘From “Homelands” to “Warlands”: Themes, Approaches, Voices’, in P. Gatrell and N. P Baron (eds), Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in Soviet Eastern Europe, 1945–1950 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 1–22.
D. Kévonian (2004) Réfugiés et diplomatie humanitaire: les acteurs européens et la scène proche-orientale pendant l’entre-deux-guerres (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne); Skran, Refugees in Inter-War Europe, pp. 173–7.
Simpson, The Refugee Problem, p. 529. M. Mandel (2003) In the Aftermath of Genocide: Armenians and Jews in Twentieth-Century France (Durham, NC: Duke University Press), pp. 33–6, mentions Camp Oddo on the outskirts of Marseille, which operated from 1922 to 1927. Simpson made only brief mention of camps, when he called upon governments to admit refugees from Germany ‘and accommodate them, if necessary in camps, until they could be dispersed to countries of ultimate settlement’. Simpson, The Refugee Problem, pp. 548–9.
For an illustration of this ethos in a different context, see I. Feldman (2007) ‘The Quaker Way: Ethical Labor and Humanitarian Relief’, American Ethnologist, XXXIV (4), pp. 689–705.
E. A. Shils (1946) ‘Social and Psychological Aspects of Displacement and Repatriation’, Journal of Social Issues, II (3), pp. 3–18;
H. B. M. Murphy (1955), Flight and Resettlement (Paris: UNESCO); Vernant, The Refugee in the Post-War World, p. 17.
E. Rees (1959) We Strangers and Afraid (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace).
V. Skultans (1998) The Testimony of Lives: Narrative and Memory in Post-Soviet Latvia (London: Routledge);
P. Ballinger (2003) History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans (Princeton: Princeton University Press); Thum, Die fremde Stadt, pp. 497–526.
Quoted in M. Eksteins (1999) Walking since Daybreak: A Story of Eastern Europe, World War 2 and the Heart of our Century (Boston: Houghton Mifflin), p. 114.
B. Shephard (2008) ‘“Becoming Planning Minded”: The Theory and Practice of Relief, 1940–1945’, Journal of Contemporary History, XLIII (3), pp. 403–19, esp. p. 412.
The Indian government also adopted this term in order to characterise the remit of its chief agency for refugees created by Partition. U. B. Rao (1967) The Story of Rehabilitation (Delhi: Department of Rehabilitation).
Psychological expertise is explored by M. Thomson (2006) Psychological Subjects: Identity, Culture and Health in Twentieth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
R. Manley (2009) To the Tashkent Station: The Evacuation and Survival of Soviet Civilians during World War Two (Ithaca: Cornell University Press). See also the chapter by Elizabeth White in this volume.
On anxieties in the First World War and beyond see Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking, pp. 78–80 and D. Shearer (2004) ‘Elements Near and Alien: Passportisation, Policing and Identity in the Stalinist State, 1932–52’, Journal of Modern History LXXVI (4), p. 863.
This phrase appears in E. H. S. Chandler (1959) High Tower of Refuge: The Inspiring Story of Refugee Relief throughout the World (London: Odhams Press), p. 25.
For a superb discussion of trajectories, see D. Newbury (2005) ‘Returning Refugees: Four Historical Patterns of Coming Home to Rwanda’, Comparative Studies in Society and History XL (2), pp. 252–85.
Malkki, ‘Refugees and Exile’; J. Hyndman (2000) Managing Displacement: Refugees and the Politics of Humanitarianism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press).
The classic statement is B. Harrell-Bond (1985) Imposing Aid: Emergency Assistance to Refugees (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
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Gatrell, P. (2011). Trajectories of Population Displacement in the Aftermaths of Two World Wars. In: Reinisch, J., White, E. (eds) The Disentanglement of Populations. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230297685_1
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