Abstract
For decades after 1945, mainstream historians overlooked the existence of women in the Third Reich. In the totalitarian paradigms that framed their research questions, coercion from ‘above’ all but obscured consent from ‘below’. Since women occupied no positions of authority in the Nazi hierarchy, it seemed to follow that they had exerted no agency. Perhaps most scholars implicitly agreed with a Nazi saying, ‘The soil provides food, women provide population, and men make history’. During the last decade of the Cold War, however, historians of women and gender joined with social historians in thinking outside totalitarian frameworks. In this chapter, I use research on women in two very different sub-fields, the Holocaust and consumerism, to examine the connections between transformations in post-Cold War public memory and historical scholarship.
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Notes
An earlier version of this chapter appeared in Karen Hagemann and Jean Quataert (eds), Gendering Modern German History (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007), pp. 147–68.
Among the earliest resisters’ memoirs published during the Cold War are Lina Haag, Lore Wolf, Anni Wadle, Simone Saint-Clair, Ravensbrück: l’enfer des femmes (1945);
Rosane (pseudonym) Terre de cendres, Ravensbrück et Belsen, 1943–1945 (1946);
Gisella Perl, I was a Doctor in Auschwitz (1947);
Ella Lingens-Reiner, Prisoners of Fear (1949);
Hanna Lévy-Hass, Inside Belsen (1982);
and Lisa Scheuer, Vom Tode, der nicht stattfand: Theresienstadt, Auschwitz, Freiberg, Mauthausen: eine Frau überlebt (1983).
Early accounts by Jewish women survivors include Mary Berg, Warsaw Ghetto (1945);
Anne Frank, Het achterhuis; dagboekbrieven van 12 Juni 1942–1 Augustus 1944 (1947);
Else R. Behrend-Rosenfeld, Ich stand nicht allein, Erlebnisse einer Jüdin in Deutschland, 1933–1944 (1949);
Gerda Klein, All But My Life (1957);
Charlotte Delbo, Aucun de nous ne reviendra (1965);
Fania Fenelon, Playing for Time (1977);
and Isabella Leitner, Fragments of Isabella (1978).
Angelika Ebbinghaus (ed.), Opfer und Täterinnen (Nördlingen: Greno, 1987); Lerke Gravenhorst and Carmen Tatschmurat (eds), Töchter-Fragen (Freiburg i.Br.: Kore, 1990);
Uta Schmidt, ‘Wohin mit unserer gemeinsamen Betroffenheit?’, in Ursula Becher and Jörn Büsen (eds), Weiblichkeit in geschichtler Perspektive (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1988), pp. 502–16.
Jane Caplan, ‘Post Modernism, Poststructuralism’, and Isabel V. Hull, ‘Feminist and Gender History’, Central European History 22(3–4) (1989), pp. 260–301;
Hannah Schissler, Geschlechterverhältnisse im historischen Wandel (Frankfurt a.M.: Campus, 1993);
Ute Daniel, ‘Clio unter Kulturschock’, Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht 48 (1997), pp. 195–217.
Joan Ringelheim, ‘The Split between Gender and the Holocaust’, in Lenore Weitzman and Dalia Ofer (eds), Women in the Holocaust (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998);
Christa Schikorra, Kontinuitäten der Ausgrenzung. ‘Asoziale’ Häftlinge im Frauen-Konzentrationslager Ravensbrück, TU Berlin Zentrum für Antisemitismusforschung, Vol. 41, Dokumente — Texte — Materialien (Berlin: Metropol, 2001).
Karin Windaus-Walser, ‘Gnade der weiblichen Geburt?’, Feministische Studien 6 (1988), pp. 12–31;
Christina Thürmer-Rohr, ‘Aus der Täuschung in die Ent-Täuschung’, Beiträge zur Feministischen Theorie und Praxis 8 (1983), pp. 11–26;
Claudia Card, ‘Women, Evil, and Grey Zones’, Metaphilosophy 31(5) (2000), pp. 11–23.
For an overview in English, see Christina Thürmer-Rohr, Vagabonding: Feminist Thinking Cut Loose, translated by Lise Weil (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1991).
In their film, Das Grosse Schweigen (1995), Caroline von der Tann and Maren Niemeyer also called attention to rape. Christa Paul, ‘Zwangsprostitution: staatlich errichtete Bordelle im Nationalsozialismus’, Reihe deutsche Vergangenheit 115 (Berlin, 1994); Christi Wickert, ‘Tabu Lagerbordell: vom Umgang mit der Zwangsprostitution nach 1945’, in Insa Eschebach, Sigrid Jacobeit and Silke Wenk (eds), Gedächtnis und Geschlecht: Deutungsmuster in Darstellungen des nationalsozialistischen Genozids (Frankfurt a.M: Campus, 2002);
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Claudia Friedel, (Münster: LIT, 1995); Hans-Jürgen Arendt, Sabine Hering and Leonie Wagner (eds), Nationalsozialistische Frauenpolitik (Frankfurt a.M: Dipa, 1995);
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Kathleen Canning, ‘The Body as Method?’, Gender and History 11(3) (1999), pp. 499–513;
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Petra Fuchs, ‘Körperbehinderte’ zwischen Selbstaufgabe und Emanzipation (Neuwied: Luchterhand, 2001);
Petra Kannappel, Die Behandlung von Frauen im nationalsozialistischen Familienrecht (Darmstadt: Selbstverlang der HHK, 1999);
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Heide Fehrenbach, Race after Hitler: Black Occupation Children in Postwar Germany and America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005);
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Miriam Enzweiler, Fremdarbeiterinnen und Fremdarbeiter (Krefeld: Edition Bilstein, 1994);
Birthe Kundrus, ‘Forbidden Company’ and Patricia Szobar, ‘Race Defilement in Germany’, in Herzog (ed.), Sexuality and German Fascism, pp. 201–22, 142; Kundrus, ‘“Die Unmoral deutscher Soldatenfrauen”’, in Kirsten Heinsohn, Barbara Vogel and Ulrike Weckel (eds), Zwischen Karriere und Verfolgung: Handlungsräume von Frauen im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland (Frankfurt a.M.: Campus, 1997), pp. 96–110;
Alexandra Przyrembel, Rassenschande (Göttingen, 2003);
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Nathan Stoltzfus, Resistance of the Heart: Intermarriage and the Rosenstrasse Protest in Nazi Germany (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996) and the trenchant criticism by Wolf Gruner and Ursula Marcum, ‘The Factory Action and the Events at the Rosenstrasse in Berlin: Facts and Fictions’, Central European History 36(2) (2003); Stephen Tyas, ‘Allied Intelligence Agencies and the Holocaust: Information Acquired from German Prisoners of War’, Journal of Holocaust and Genocide Studies 22(1) (2008).
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Uta Cornelia Schmatzler, Verstrickung, Mitverantwortung und Täterschaft (Kiel: L & F, 1994), pp. 241–87;
Susi Hausammann, Nicole Kuropka and Heike Scherer, Frauen in dunkler Zeit: Schicksal und Arbeit von Frauen in der Kirche zwischen1933 und 1945 (Cologne: Rheinland-Verlag, 1996);
Claus Füllberg-Stollberg (ed.), Frauen in Konzentrationslagern: Bergen-Belsen, Ravensbrück (Bremen: Temmen, 1994).
Doris L. Bergen, ‘The Volksdeutsche of Eastern Europe and the Collapse of the Nazi Empire, 1944–1945’, in Allen E. Steinweis and Daniel E. Rogers (eds), The Impact of Nazism. New Perspectives on the Third Reich and its Legacy (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2003);
Elizabeth Harvey, Women and the Nazi East: Agents and Witnesses of Germanization (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003).
Klara Löffler, Aufgehoben: Soldatenbriefe (Bamberg: VWB, 1992), pp. 87–116, 125–48;
Wolfram Wette (ed.), Der Krieg des kleinen Mannes (Munich: Piper, 1992);
Ingrid Hammer and Susanne zur Nieden, (eds), ‘Sehr selten habe ich geweint’ (Zurich: Schweizer Verlagshaus, 1992);
Detlef Bald and Wolfram Wette (eds), Zivilcourage: Empörte, Helfer und Retter aus Wehrmacht, Polizei und SS (Frankfurt a.M.: Fischer, 2004).
Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, the Family, and Nazi Politics (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1987), pp. 408–18;
Karin Hausen, ‘Frauenräume’, in Karin Hausen and Heide Wunder (eds), Frauengeschichte-Geschlectergeschichte (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 1992), pp. 21–3;
Hans Heer, ‘Bittere Pflicht, Der Rassenkrieg’, in Walter Manoschek and Reinhold Gärtner (eds), Die Wehrmacht im Rassenkrieg (Vienna: Picus, 1996), pp. 116–36;
Inge Marssolek, ‘Ich möchte Dich zu gern mal in Uniform sehen’, Werkstattgeschichte 22 (1999), pp. 41–59;
Thomas Kühne, ‘Comradeship’, in Karen Hagemann and Stefanie Schüler-Springorum (eds), Home/Front: The Military, War and Gender in Twentieth-Century Germany (Oxford: Berg, 2002), pp. 233–54;
Susanne zur Nieden, ‘Erotic Fraternization’, in Hagemann et al. (eds), Home/Front, pp. 303–6; Sybille Steinbacher, ‘Musterstadt’ Auschwitz: Germanisierungspolitik und Judenmord in Ostoberschlesien (Munich: G.K. Saur, 2000), p. 187.
Kathrin Kompisch, Täterinnen: Frauen im Nationalsozialismus (Köln: Böhlau, 2008). According to one reviewer, Kathrin Kompisch ‘documents the shameful truth about her sex in the war, which until now has been a taboo subject in her homeland’, uncritically accepting the author’s claim, ‘The participation of women in the crimes of the Nazis has been blended out of the collective conscious of the Germans for a long time’, she writes.
Enzo Traverso, Origins of Nazi Violence (New York: New Press, 2003), pp. 35–45.
Helen Boak, ‘Mobilizing Women for Hitler: The Female Nazi Voter’, in Tim Kirk and Anthony McElligott (eds), Working Towards the Führer: Essays in Honour of Sir Ian Kershaw (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), pp. 68–92;
Evan Burr Bukey, Hitler’s Austria: Popular Sentiment in the Nazi Era 1938–1945 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).
Hartmut Berghoff, ‘Enticement and deprivation’, in Martin Daunton and Matthew Hilton (eds), The Politics of Consumption (Oxford: Berg, 2001), pp. 166–77;
Pamela Swett, Jonathan Zatlin and Jonathan Wiener (eds), Selling Modernity (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006);
Alon Confino and Rudy Koshar, ‘Régimes of Consumer Culture’, German History 19(2) (2001), pp. 135–61;
Paul Betts, The Authority of Everyday Objects (Berkeley, CA,: University of California Press, 2004), pp. 21–34.
See also Ulrich Heinemann, ‘Krieg und Frieden an der “inneren Front”’, in Christoph Kiessmann and Ute Frevert (eds), Nicht nur Hitlers Krieg (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1989);
Cornelie Usborne, ‘Body Biological to Body Politics: Women’s Demands for Reproductive Self-Determination in World War I and Early Weimar Germany’, in Geoff Eley and Jan Palmowski (eds), Citizenship and National Identity in Twentieth-Century Germany (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), pp. 129–45.
Nancy Reagin, ‘Marktordnungand Autarkic Housekeeping’, German History 19(2) (2001), pp. 162–84;
Renate Harter-Meyer, Der Kochlöffel ist unsere Waffe (Baltmannsweiler: Schneider, 1999), pp. 74–81, 84–107.
Uta Gerhardt, ‘Charismatische Herrschaft’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft 24(4) (1998), pp. 503–38;
Cristina von Braun, ‘“Der Jude” und “Das Weib”’, Metis 1(2) (1992), pp. 6–28;
Adelheid von Saldern, The Challenge of Modernity (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2002), pp. 313–5, 337.
Other works on popular culture include Barbara Determann, Ulrike Hammer and Doron Kiesel (eds), Verdeckte Überlieferungen (Frankfurt a.M.: Haag + Herchen, 1991);
Andrew Bergerson, ‘Listening to the Radio’, German Studies Review 24(1) (2001), pp. 83–113;
Kate Lacey, Feminine Frequencies (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1996);
Barbara Schrödl, Das Bild des Künstlers und seiner Frauen (Marburg: Jonas, 2004);
Inge Marssolek, Adelheid von Saldern, and Daniela Münkel (eds), Radio im Nationalsozialismus (Tübingen: Diskord, 1998).
Uli Linke, ‘The Violence of Difference’, in Marcus Funck, Greg Eghigian and Paul Matthew (eds), Sacrifice and National Belonging (College Station, TX Texas A&M Press, 2002), pp. 156, 179–87.
Shelley Baranowski, Strength through Joy: Consumerism and Mass Tourism in the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004);
Kristin Semmens, Seeing Hitler’s Germany: Tourism in the Third Reich (Houndmills, Baskingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
For continuities with Weimar tourism, see Cristine Keitz, Reisen als Leitbild: die Entstehung des modernen Massentourismus in Deutschland (Munich: DTV, 1997).
Angela Vaupel, Frauen im NS-Film (Hamburg: Kovac, 2002);
Jo Fox, Filming Women in the Third Reich (Oxford: Berg, 2000);
Jana Francesca Bruns, Nazi Cinema’s New Women: Twenty Years of Trial and Error (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009);
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Irene Guenther, Nazi chic? (Oxford: Berg, 2004).
Dagmar Reese, Growing up Female in Nazi Germany (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2006);
Sabine Hering and Kurt Schilde, Das BDM-Werk ‘Glaube und Schönheit’: die Organisation junger Frauen im Nationalsozialismus (Berlin: Metropol, 2000);
Elisabeth Perchinig, Zur Einübung von Weiblichkeit im Terrorzusammenhang: Mädchenadoleszenz in der NS-Gesellschaft (Munich: Profil, 1998);
Gisela Miller-Kipp, Auch Du gehörst dem Führer (Weinheim: Juventa, 2001);
Ursula R. Mahlendorf, The Shame of Survival: Working through a Nazi Childhood (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009);
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Koonz, C. (2010). A Tributary and a Mainstream: Gender, Public Memory and the Historiography of Nazi Germany. In: Lim, JH., Petrone, K. (eds) Gender Politics and Mass Dictatorship. Mass Dictatorship in the 20th Century. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230283275_4
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