Abstract
As evident from the preceding chapters, the global communication era poses significant challenges for U.S. public diplomacy. Meeting those challenges requires not simply more public diplomacy, but a different vision of strategic public diplomacy. This chapter presents two frameworks for designing and analyzing an array of public diplomacy initiatives at the strategic and tactical levels. The frameworks are intended to provide greater clarity to the burgeoning field of public diplomacy where debates over what is and is not public diplomacy have surfaced. The frameworks presented here are not mutually exclusive nor is one better than the other. Instead, the frameworks represent complementary and equally critical approaches for developing an expanded vision of strategic public diplomacy.
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Jan Melissen, Wielding Soft Power: The New Public Diplomacy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)
Shaun Riordan, The New Diplomacy (New York: Polity Press, 2003).
Geoffrey Cowan and Amelia Arsenault, “Moving from Monologue to Dialogue to Collaboration: The Three Layers of Public Diplomacy,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616 (2008), pp. 10–30.
Joseph S. Nye, The Paradox of Power (New York: Oxford University, 2003), p. 68.
See, for example, Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 2003).
Early works based on WWI experience include Edward Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1923)
Harold Lasswell, Propaganda Techniques in the World War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927).
For discussion of the extensive propaganda research in U.S. following WWII, see Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare 1945–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). Early scholars include, Hadley Cantril, Harold Lasswell, Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm, and Carl Hovland.
Stanley B. Cunningham, The Idea of Propaganda; A Reconstruction (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), p. 204.
Leonard W. Doob analyzed the 6,800-page document of Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, “Goebbels’ Principles of Propaganda,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 14 (1950), pp. 419–42.
For a discussion of the psychological underpinnings, see Carl Hovland, I. Janis, and H. Kelly, Communications Communication and Persuasion (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953)
James Alexander Campbell Brown, Techniques of Persuasion: From Pr opagandato Brainwashing (New York: Pelican, 1965). The most extensive online source for propaganda studies is maintained by Prof. Philip M. Taylor at the Institute of Communication Studies, University of Leeds, U.K.
Norman Pattiz, “Radio Sawa and Alhurra TV: Opening Channels of Mass Communication in the Middle East,” in William Rugh (ed.), Engaging the Arab and Islamic Worlds through Public Diplomacy (Washington, D.C.: Public Diplomacy Council, 2004), p. 71.
Simon Anholt, Competitive Identity: The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
Interestingly, some non-Western public relations models are void of messaging strategies For examples, see K. Sriramesh “Societal Culture and Public Relations: Ethnographic Evidence from India,” Public Relations Review, 18 (1992), pp. 202–12
Samsup Jo and Yungwook Kim, “Media or Personal Relations,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 81 (Summer 2004), pp. 292–306
Basyouni Ibrahim Hamada, “Global Culture or Culture Clash: As Islamic Intercultural Communication Perspective,” Global Media Journal, 3 (Fall 2004), pp. 1–15.
James E. Grunig, “Image and Substance: From Symbolic to Behavior Relationships,” Public Relations Review, 19 (1993), pp. 121–39
John A. Ledingham and Stephen D. Bruning, “Relationship Management in Public Relations: Dimensions of an Organization-Public Relationship,” Public Relations Review, 24 (Spring 1998), pp. 55–67
Michael L. Kent and Maureen Taylor, “Toward a Dialogic Theory of Public Relations,” Public Relations Review, 28 (2002), pp. 21–37.
Martin Rose and Nick Wadham-Smith, Mutuality, Trust and Cultural Relations (London: The British Council, 2004), p. 8.
Mark Leonard and Andrew Small with Martin Rose, British Public Diplomacy in an ‘Age of Schisms’ (London: Foreign Policy Centre, February 2005).
Brian Hocking, “Catalytic Diplomacy: Beyond ‘Newness’ and ‘Decline’,” in Jan Melissen (ed.), Innovation in Diplomatic Practice (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999), p. 31.
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© 2010 R. S. Zaharna
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Zaharna, R.S. (2010). Strategy and Tactics: Conceptual Frameworks. In: Battles to Bridges. Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230277922_8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230277922_8
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