Abstract
In April 1964 Lyndon Johnson’s administration created the “More Flags” program and began to put significant pressure on the United States’ leading allies to contribute ground troops to the U.S.-led fight in Vietnam.1 To the dismay of many in Washington, the allies—even the British—refused. Dean Rusk recalled with bitterness: “[a]ll we needed was a regiment. The Black Watch would have done.”2 As the prospect of war in the Persian Gulf loomed roughly three decades later, George H. W. Bush’s administration again sought allies to provide a military contribution. The allies responded more favorably to American requests to contribute to the Persian Gulf War—Britain, France, and Italy all contributed, though the size of the contribution varied.
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Notes
Sylvia Ellis, Britain, America, and the Vietnam War (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 4–5.
Ibid., 4–5. See also, Logevall, “America Isolated: The Western Powers and the Escalation of the War,” in America, the Vietnam War, and the World: Comparative and International Perspectives, ed. Andreas W. Daum, Lloyd C. Gardner, and Wilfried Mausbach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 183.
Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (London: Routledge, 1995), 137.
David Sanders, Losing an Empire, Finding a Role: British Foreign Policy since 1945 (Houndmills: Palgrave, 1990), 171.
Thomas Alan Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe: In the Shadow of Vietnam (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 81–83.
See Dobson, Anglo-American Relations, 68; Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe, 68; Ellis, Britain, America, and the Vietnam War, 19. See also, Jonathan Colman, A ‘Special Relationship’ ? Harold Wilson, Lyndon B. Johnson and Anglo-American Relations ‘at the summit,’ 1964–68 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 49–50.
Harold Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964–1970: A Personal Record (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971), 50.
Sanders, Losing an Empire, 175. See also, Dean Rusk and Daniel S. Papp, As I Saw It (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 455.
Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), 256.
Charles G. Cogan, Oldest Allies, Guarded Friends: The United States and France since 1940 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 132–33.
Jean Doise and Maurice Vaïsse, Politique étrangère de la France: Diplomatie et outil militaire, 1871–1991 (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1992), 538.
Frédéric Bozo, La politique étrangère de la France depuis 1945 (Paris: La Découverte, 1997), 28–29.
Frank Costigliola, “The Vietnam War and the Challenges to American Power in Europe,” in International Perspectives on Vietnam, ed. Lloyd C. Gardner and Te d Gittinger (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999), 144.
France continued to derive value from the North Atlantic Treaty. Stanley Hoffman, Decline or Renewal: France since the 1930s (New York: Viking Press, 1974), 319.
Logevall, “America Isolated,” 180. See also, Yuko Torikata, “Reexamining de Gaulle’s Peace Initiative on the Vietnam War,” Diplomatic History 31, no. 5 (November 2007), 919.
Marianna Sullivan, France’s Vietnam Policy: A Study in French-American Relations (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1978), 12, 26.
Philip H. Gordon, A Certain Idea of France: French Security Policy and the Gaullist Legacy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 15.
Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (London: Pan Books, 1977).
Luigi Vittorio Ferraris, Manuale della politica estera italiana, 1947–1993 (Roma: Laterza, 1996), 138.
Leo J. Wollemborg, Stars, Stripes and Italian Tricolor: The United States and Italy, 1946–1989 (New York: Praeger, 1990), 113, 117.
Giuseppe Mammarella and Paolo Cacace, La politica estera dell’Italia. Dallo Stato unitario ai giorni nostri (Roma: Laterza, 2006), 218.
See also Sergio Romano, Guida alla politica estera italiana. Da Badoglio a Berlusconi (Milano: BUR, 2004), 127.
Ferraris, Manuale della politica estera italiana, 192. Mario Sica, Marigold non fi orì. Il contributo italiano alla pace in Vietnam (Firenze: Ponte alle Grazie, 1991), 31, 32.
Paul Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943–1988 (London: Penguin, 1990), 442.
For a good overview, see Richard W. Nelson, “Multinational Peacekeeping in the Middle East and the United Nations Model,” in The Multinational Force in Beirut 1982–1984, ed. Anthony McDermott and Kjell Skjelsbaek (Miami: Florida International University Press, 1991).
Paul Sharp, Thatcher’s Diplomacy: The Revival of British Foreign Policy (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 105.
See Margaret Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (London: Harper Collins, 1993), 253–56.
See also, George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1993), 135–45.
Henry Stanhope, “Small British Team May Go to Beirut,” The Times (London), November 16, 1982.
John Dumbrell, A Special Relationship: Anglo-American Relations from the Cold War to Iraq, 2nd ed. (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 108.
Percy Cradock, In Pursuit of British Interests: Reflections on Foreign Policy under Margaret Thatcher and John Major (London: John Murray, 1997), 160.
Thatcher, Downing Street Years, 334. See also 327, 328, and John Campbell, Margaret Thatcher: The Iron Lady (London: Vintage, 2008), 337.
See “Britain Asked to Send Troops to Lebanon,” Stanhope, “Small British Team,” and Henry Stanhope, “Lebanon Peace Force ‘Will Double in Two Weeks,’” The Times (London), December 11, 1982.
Pia Christina Wood, “The Diplomacy of Peacekeeping: France and the Multinational Forces to Lebanon, 1982–84,” International Peacekeeping 5, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 19–37.
Hubert Védrine, Les mondes de François Mitterrand. À l’Élysée 1981–1995 (Paris: Fayard, 1996), 321.
Nelson, “Multinational Peacekeeping,” 11. Steven Rattner, “300 Legionnaires Given Send-Off for Beirut,” The New York Times, August 20, 1982.
François Mitterrand, Réflexions sur la politique extérieure de la France (Paris: Fayard, 1986), 9.
See also Jean Lacouture, Mitterrand: Une histoire de Français II, Les vertiges du sommet (Paris: Seuil, 1998), 141.
Evan Galbraith, Ambassador in Paris: The Reagan Years (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1987), 114.
Roland Dumas, Affaires étrangères I, 1981–1988 (Paris: Fayard, 2007), 78. See also Lacouture, Mitterrand, 149.
Claude Cheysson, “Mitterrand, La Guerre du Golfe et L’Islamisme: Témoignages et interventions,” in Mitterrand et la sortie de la guerre froide, ed. Samy Cohen (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1998), 349.
John Vincour, “Mitterrand’s Global Role Troubles His Supporters,” The New York Times, October 9, 1983.
Carlo M. Santoro, La Politica Estera di una Media Potenza: L’Italia dall’Unità ad oggi (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1991), 182.
Ferraris, Manuale della politica estera italiana, 318. Giovanni Spadolini, L’Italia Nell’Occidente Vol. II (Roma: Edizione La Voce, 1984), 14–15.
Valter Coralluzzo, La Politica Estera Dell’Italia Repubblicana (1946–1992) (Milano: FrancoAngeli, 2000), 294.
Alessandro Massai, “Il Controllo Parlamentare e le Operazioni della Forza di Pace,” a cura di Alessandro Migliazzi, Le Forze Multinazionali nel Libano e nel Sinai (Milano: Giuffrè, 1988), 152–53.
Freedman and Karsh, Lawrence Freedman and Efraim Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 1990–1991: Diplomacy and War in the New World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 90.
Cradock, In Pursuit of British Interests, 26. For an American assessment, see James Addison Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War, and Peace, 1989–1992 (New York: Putnam, 1995), 279.
Pascal Boniface, “Révolution stratégique mondiale, continuité et inflexions de la politique française de sécurité,” in Mitterrand et la sortie de la guerre froide, ed. Samy Cohen (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1998), 157–85.
George H. W. Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Knopf, 1998), 267.
Hubert Védrine, Les mondes de François Mitterrand. À l’Élysée 1981–1995 (Paris: Fayard, 1996), 524.
Claude Cheysson, “Mitterrand, La Guerre du Golfe et L’Islamisme: Témonages et interventions,” in Mitterrand, ed. Cohen, 348. See also Lionel Jospin, Le temps de répondre. Entretiens avec Alain Duhamel (Paris: Stock, 2002), 66.
Virgilio Ilari, “La politica militare italiana,” L’Italia nella politica internazionale (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1991), 273.
For reasons why Italy should not have valued its relationship with the United States, see Sergio Romano, Lo scambio ineguale. Italia e Stati Uniti da Wilson a Clinton (Rome, Laterza, 1995), 68–71.
Laura Guazzone, “Italy and the Gulf Crisis: European and Domestic Dimensions,” The International Spectator 26, no. 4 (October–December 1991), 73.
Christopher Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy since 1796 (London: Penguin, 2007), 580–81.
Roberto Aliboni, “L’Italia, il Golfo e il Mediterraneo,” L’Italia nella politica internazionale (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1991), 111. See also, Coralluzzo, La Politica Estera Dell’Italia Repubblicana, 321–22.
For an overview, see John L. Hirsch and Robert B. Oakley, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope: Reflections on Peacemaking and Peacekeeping (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995).
Paul Lewis, “Key UN Members Agree to U.S. Force in Somalia Mission,” The New York Times, December 3, 1992.
Lawrence Freedman, “Defence Policy,” in The Major Effect, ed. Kavanagh and Anthony Seldon (London: Macmillan, 1994), 277.
Wallace (p. 285) notes that Bush and Major shared a relationship of “mutual respect” and (pp. 290, 293) Major enjoyed a number of visits to the Bush White House. Some also argued that the presidential campaign story would not have lingering effects. See Peter Riddell, “Will Clinton Be ‘Special’?” The Times (London) December 7, 1992.
Raymond Seitz, Over Here (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998), 321.
James Bone and Martin Fletcher, “UN Gains Firm Grip on American-Led Forces in Somalia,” The Times (London), December 4, 1992.
David Owen, “When It Is Right to Fight,” The Times (London), August 4, 1992.
Baroness Chalker, “The Struggle to Alleviate Plight of the Somalis,” Financial Times, August 5, 1992.
Frances Williams, “UN Gives Action Plan for Somalia,” Financial Times, October 13, 1992.
Paul Lewis, “U.N. Council Essentially Agrees to U.S. Command in Somalia,” The New York Times, December 2, 1992.
George Graham, “Bush Orders 28,000 Troops into Somalia to Aid Relief,” Financial Times, December 5, 1992.
On the former claim, see Jean-Marie Colombani, “Un entretien avec Alain Joxe ‘Le monde de l’empire unique n’est pas acceptable,’” Le Monde, December 22, 1992.
Daniel Vernet, “The Dilemma of French Foreign Policy,” International Affairs 68, no. 4 (1992), 663.
Guy Martin, “Continuity and Change in Franco-African Relations,” Journal of Modern African Studies 33, no. 1 (1995): 1–20.
Samy Cohen and Natalie La Balme, “Ni bellicistes, ni pacifists: Les Français et l’intervention militaire extérieure,” in L’Opinion, l’humanitaire et la guerre: Une perspective comparative, ed. Samy Cohen (Paris: Fondation Pour Les Études de Défense, 1996), 21.
The center-right garnered 46.8 percent of the vote in the 1988 election. William Safran, The French Polity, 5th ed. (New York: Longman, 1998), 75.
For a critical discussion, see Philippe Guillot, “France, Peacekeeping and Humanitarian Intervention,” International Peacekeeping 1, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 30–43.
Claudio Lindner, “‘Pronti a partire’, conferma Ando,” Corriere della Sera, November 30, 1992; Ferraris, Manuale della politica estera italiana, 485.
Filippo Andreatta, “Italy at a Crossroads: The Foreign Policy of a Medium Power after the End of Bipolarity,” Daedalus 130, no. 2 (Spring 2001), 52.
Paola Di Caro, “‘Italiani sgraditi’: polemica con gli USA,” Corriere della Sera, December 10, 1992.
Bruno Loi, Peace-keeping, pace o guerra? Una risposta italiana: l’operazione Ibis in Somalia (Firenze: Vallecchi, 2004), 22. See also, Andreatta, “Italy at a Crossroads,” 57.
Franco Venturini, “L’ armata dei dubbi,” Corriere della Sera, December 7, 1992.
Osvaldo Croci, “The Italian Intervention in Somalia: A New Italian Foreign Policy After the Cold War?” in Italian Politics: Ending the First Republic, ed. Carol Mershon and Gianfranco Pasquino (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995), 201.
Margherita De Bac, “Il Papa benedice la guerra alla fame,” Corriere della Sera, December 6, 1992; Ferraris, Manuale della politica estera italiana, 485.
Angelo Del Boca, Una sconfitta dell’intelligenza: Italia e Somalia (Roma: Laterza, 1993), 116. See also, p. 157.
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© 2011 Jason W. Davidson
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Davidson, J.W. (2011). Vietnam, Lebanon, Persian Gulf, and Somalia. In: America’s Allies and War. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230118485_3
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