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Fabricating an Organizational Field for Research: US Academic Microfabrication Facilities in the 1970s and 1980s

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Abstract

In the mid-1970s, the tools needed to make leading-edge microelectronic devices were becoming prohibitively expensive for university researchers to buy. Increasing competition from Japanese firms, however, led government and industry to urgently seek a way for US academic microelectronics researchers to keep up. One solution, initiated by the National Science Foundation, was a new form of organizing research: the “campus user facility” that would provide tools to—and share costs among—a large customer base. Cornell, Stanford, and MIT’s facilities, in particular, established models for interdisciplinary university–industry interaction that spread quickly to other campuses in the 1980s. This chapter follows the diffusion of the microfabrication user facility as a new organizational form and its evolution in response to changes in the microelectronics industry in the 1980s and 1990s.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Gordon Research Conference, “Nanostructure Fabrication,” http://www.grc.org/programs.aspx?year=2012&program=nanofab (accessed July 15, 2013).

  2. 2.

    Post-academic: John Ziman, Real Science: What It Is and What It Means (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Mode 1/Mode 2: Michael Gibbons et al., The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies (London: Sage, 1994). Post-modern: Paul Forman, “The Primacy of Science in Modernity, of Technology in Postmodernity, and of Ideology in the History of Technology,” History and Technology 23 (2007): 1–152. Neoliberal: Philip Mirowski, Science-Mart: Privatizing American Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). Triple helix: Henry Etzkowitz, The Triple Helix: University-Government-Industry Innovation in Action (New York: Routledge, 2008).

  3. 3.

    Colin Norman, “Electronics Firms Plug into Universities,” Science 217 (August 6, 1982): 511–514.

  4. 4.

    Paul DiMaggio and Walter W. Powell, “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields,” American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 147–160.

  5. 5.

    See, for example, Roger Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); or the essays in Osiris, volume 20 (2005), “Politics and Science in Wartime: Comparative International Perspectives on the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute.”

  6. 6.

    See, for example, the various extradepartmental laboratories established after the war at Stanford and MIT in Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).

  7. 7.

    Perhaps the best study that addresses this issue is Peter J. Westwick, The National Labs: Science in an American System, 1947–1974 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003). Recently, Hyungsub Choi and I have tried to raise this issue with respect to postwar systems of academic centers: Hyungsub Choi and Cyrus C.M. Mody, “From Materials Science to Nanotechnology: Institutions, Communities, and Disciplines at Cornell University, 1960–2000,” Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 43 (2012): 121–161.

  8. 8.

    Christophe Lécuyer, “Semiconductor Innovation and Entrepreneurship at Three University of California Campuses,” in Regional Economic Development, Public Universities, and Technology Transfer: Studies of the University of California’s Contributions to Knowledge-based Growth, ed. Martin Kenney and David Mowery (Stanford: Stanford University Press, forthcoming).

  9. 9.

    See “Back to the Future: Professor Dudley A. Buck (1927–1959),” RLE Currents 2.1 (December, 1988): 18–19, as well as oral history interview with Henry I. Smith conducted by the author, October 25, 2005, transcript available from the Chemical Heritage Foundation.

  10. 10.

    Mara Mills, “Hearing Aids and the History of Electronics Miniaturization,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 33.2 (February 2011): 24–45.

  11. 11.

    Mark L. Schattenburg, “History of the ‘Three Beams’ Conference, the Birth of the Information Age, and the Era of Lithography Wars,” 2007, http://eipbn.org/2010/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/EIPBN_history.pdf (accessed 15 Dec 2011).

  12. 12.

    D.R. Herriott, “The Development of Device Lithography,” Proceedings of the IEEE 71.5 (1983): 566–570.

  13. 13.

    Christophe Lécuyer and David C. Brock, “From Nuclear Physics to Semiconductor Manufacturing: The Making of Ion Implantation,” History and Technology 25.3 (2009): 193–217.

  14. 14.

    Cyrus C.M. Mody, “Conferences and the Emergence of Nanoscience,” in The Social Life of Nanotechnology, ed. Barbara Herr Harthorn and John Mohr (London: Routledge, 2012): 52–65.

  15. 15.

    Interview with Dean Neikirk conducted by the author, October 12, 2009, Austin, TX.

  16. 16.

    Oral history interview with David A. Hodges conducted by Christophe Lécuyer, between June 2008 and June 2010, available at http://andros.eecs.berkeley.edu/~hodges/David_Hodges_Interviews.pdf.

  17. 17.

    An Assessment of the Needs for Equipment, Instrumentation, and Facilities for University Research in Science and Engineering (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1971).

  18. 18.

    W. Patrick McCray, Giant Telescopes: Astronomical Ambition and the Promise of Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

  19. 19.

    Olof Hallonsten, “Small Science on Big Machines: Politics and Practices of Synchrotron Radiation Laboratories” (PhD dissertation, Lund University, 2009).

  20. 20.

    Proposal for “Operational support of the regular collection of mammals in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology,” W.Z. Lidicker and J.L. Patton, November 23, 1977, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology archives (courtesy of Mary Sunderland).

  21. 21.

    William J. Cromie, “Regional Instrumentation Centers,” Mosaic 11.2 (1980), 12–18.

  22. 22.

    Dian Belanger, Enabling American Innovation: Engineering and the National Science Foundation (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1998).

  23. 23.

    Jay Harris, “It’s a Small World,” text of talk delivered at the 25th anniversary of the Cornell Nanofabrication Facility/NRRFSS in 2003, copy given to the author by Jay Harris.

  24. 24.

    Arthur Fisher, “The Magnetism of a Shared Facility,” Mosaic 11.2 (1980), 38–45. Jay Harris claims that he had the FBNML in mind when he conceived the idea for a national microfabrication facility. Jay Harris, interview with author, San Diego, CA, May 5, 2006.

  25. 25.

    Charles Polk, “Address to the NSF Workshop,” in Report of the NSF Workshop on Needs for a National Research and Resource Center in Submicron Structures (East Coast), [henceforth Penn workshop report] submitted by J.N. Zemel and M.S. Chang (Philadelphia: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, May 10, 1976), 25–35. Emphasis in original.

  26. 26.

    Harris, “Small World.”

  27. 27.

    E.D. Wolf and J.M. Ballantyne, “Research and Resource at the National Submicron Facility,” in Norman G. Einspruch, ed., VLSI Electronics: Microstructure Science, vol. 1, (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 129–183.

  28. 28.

    Scott Callon, Divided Sun: MITI and the Break-Down of Japanese High-Tech Industrial Policy, 1975–1993 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).

  29. 29.

    Jay H. Harris et al., “The Government Role in VLSI,” in Norman G. Einspruch, ed., VLSI Electronics: Microstructure Science, vol. 1 (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 265–299.

  30. 30.

    Zemel and Chang, Report of the [Penn] Workshop, p. 49–50; see also Needs for a National Research and Resource Center in Submicron Structures: Report on National Science Foundation Workshop Held in Salt Lake City, Utah May 21, 1976, submitted by Richard W. Grow, Robert J. Huber, and Roland W. Ure, Jr. (Salt Lake City: Microwave Device and Physical Electronics Laboratory, University of Utah, 15 Sept, 1976), pp. 106–7.

  31. 31.

    Henry Smith (PI), “Proposal submitted to National Science Foundation for National Research and Resource Facility for Submicron Structures,” July 1, 1977; copy given to the author by Henry Smith.

  32. 32.

    Jay N. Zemel (PI), “Proposal for a National Center for Submicron Structure Research” [University of Pennsylvania/Drexel University/Lehigh University], January 1977. Copy given to author by Ed Wolf.

  33. 33.

    “Some reasons why Cornell has a strong chance to attract such a center,” undated but probably summer, 1976, probably from Joe Ballantyne and/or Charles Lee, in Cornell Center for Materials Research [henceforth CCMR] records, #53-24-3676, Box 29, Folder 37, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.

  34. 34.

    Elizabeth Popp Berman, Creating the Market University: How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).

  35. 35.

    All three rationale are laid out in, among many others, the “Report of the White House Science Council Panel on Semiconductors,” September 1987, William Graham files collection, Box CFOA 990, Folder “Semiconductors (1),” Ronald Reagan Presidential Library.

  36. 36.

    This point is emphasized in Mody and Choi, 2013.

  37. 37.

    Smith oral history.

  38. 38.

    Ibid.

  39. 39.

    MIT Research Laboratory for Electronics, Currents 2.1 (December 1988): 10; also Smith oral history and Report of the President and Chancellor 1977–78 (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1978).

  40. 40.

    Ibid. (all references). Also, Report of the President and Chancellor 1978–79 (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1979).

  41. 41.

    Forest Baskett et al. (including Linvill, Meindl, and James Gibbons), Proposal to Establish the Center for Integrated Systems at Stanford University, August 1979, CIS in-house archive.

  42. 42.

    Kevin Gross, “CIS Groundbreakers Laud Research-Industry Ties,” The Stanford Daily, May 20, 1983, in CIS in-house archive.

  43. 43.

    I have found a dozen letters between Stanford faculty (Linvill, Meindl, and Bill Spicer) and Harris, Chenette, Bourne, and Krumhansl between June 27 and September 29, 1978 in the Center for Integrated Systems in-house archive. The CIS archive also contains a number of letters written in the same period that circulated either within Stanford or within federal science policy circles discussing plans for the CIS.

  44. 44.

    Joseph Ballantyne, “Introduction,” Proceedings: NSF Workshop on Opportunities for Microstructures Science, Engineering and Technology in cooperation with the NRC Panel on Thin Film Microstructure Science and Technology : November 19–22, 1978 (Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, 1978).

  45. 45.

    National Research Council panel on Thin-Film Microstructure Science and Technology, Microstructure Science, Engineering, and Technology (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1979), 1.

  46. 46.

    Ibid.

  47. 47.

    Dale Whittington, High Hopes for High Tech: Microelectronics Policy in North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 138. Also Gregory T. Cibuzar, “Microelectronics at the University of Minnesota,” Proceedings of the Tenth Biennial University/Government/Industry Microelectronics Symposium (IEEE: 1993): 170–173.

  48. 48.

    John F. Mason, “VLSI Goes to School,” IEEE Spectrum (November 1980): 48–52.

  49. 49.

    Jerry R. Yeargan, “Developing a Program in Analog Electronics,” Proceedings of the Sixth Biennial University/Government/Industry Microelectronics Symposium (IEEE: 1985): 9–11; Robert M. Burger, Cooperative Research: The New Paradigm (Durham, NC: Semiconductor Research Corporation, 2001). Note that the SRC operates largely through project grants to universities, and that its first University Advisory Committee was composed of Ed Wolf, John Linvill, Ben Streetman from Illinois (but who would soon found Texas’ MRC), Paul Penfield (associated with the MIT Submicrometer Structures Laboratory), faculty members associated with the Arizona State, Caltech, and Minnesota facilities listed above, plus professors from Berkeley and Carnegie-Mellon.

  50. 50.

    R.C. Jaeger, et al., “The Alabama Microelectronics Science and Technology Center and the Microelectronics Program at Auburn University,” Proceedings of the Sixth Biennial University/Government/Industry Microelectronics Symposium (IEEE: 1985): 42–45.

  51. 51.

    High Hopes for High Tech, 14; H. Craig Casey, “The Microelectronics Center of North Carolina: A New Program in Science and Integrated Circuits,” Proceedings of the Fourth Biennial University/Government/Industry Microelectronics Symposium (IEEE: 1981): 169 ff.

  52. 52.

    University of Texas Office of Public Affairs, news release for July 12, 1984, in UT Office of Public Affairs Records, Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin, Subject Files, Box 4Ac86, Folder “Microelectronics Research Center.”

  53. 53.

    University of Texas Office of Public Affairs, news release for April 9, 1987, in UT Office of Public Affairs Records, Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin, Subject Files, Box 4Ac86, Folder “Microelectronics Research Center.”

  54. 54.

    Ben Streetman et al., “Proposal for a Texas Microelectronics Center in the College of Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin,” March 1983, in University of Texas Executive Vice President and Provost’s Office records (collection 96–273), Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin, Box 24, Folder Microelectronics Research Center, 1983–84.

  55. 55.

    For discussion of institutional isomorphism, see the essays in Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio (eds.), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).

  56. 56.

    Letter from Prof. Peter A. Wolff to Prof. J. Allen, August 23, 1977, re: JSEP Topical Review of Semi-conductor Integrated Circuits, Devices, and Materials, Stanford, 3, 4 August 1977, Jerome Wiesner administration records, collection AC008, Box 205, Folder Research Laboratory for Electronics, MIT Institute Archives.

  57. 57.

    Joe Ballantyne, memo to Greg Galvin, re: Information for Frank Rhodes [president of Cornell], August 11, 1986, Frank H.T. Rhodes papers [henceforth FRP], #3-12-1795, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, Box 160, Folder 59.

  58. 58.

    NRRFSS Policy Board, “Background material for topics to be discussed,” 17 Nov 1986, in DOR, Box 39, Folder 13.

  59. 59.

    Streetman, “Proposal,” appendix reporting on talks by microfabrication facility directors from (in order or presentation) Stanford, Caltech, Cornell, RPI, Minnesota, North Carolina, Arizona State, Berkeley, and MIT.

  60. 60.

    I found a description of such a phone call in John Young (Hewlett-Packard), letter to Bruce Hinchcliffe, July 14, 1981, in Stanford Center for Integrated Systems in-house archive.

  61. 61.

    MIT Microsystems Industrial Group Prospectus, May 1989, found in Stanford CIS “archive”.

  62. 62.

    NRRFSS, “Report on the National User Research Program’82-’85,” in DOR, Box 38, Folder 5; also E.D. Wolf, “Recent National Press Coverage of NRRFSS,” handout for NSF discussions, 7 Jan 1982, DOR, Box 37, Folder 32.

  63. 63.

    Richard Atkinson, testimony before the House Committee on Science and Technology, Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology hearing on Government and Innovation: University-Industry Relations, July 31, 1979, p. 82.

  64. 64.

    Frank H.T. Rhodes, testimony before the House Committee on Science and Technology, hearing on Improving the Research Infrastructure at US Universities and Colleges, May 8, 1984, p. 88.

  65. 65.

    Roger Segelken, “A Case History of a Computer Media Event—Introducing a Supercomputer Center,” Proceeding of the Fourth International Conference on Systems Documentation (New York: ACM, 1985), 146–160.

  66. 66.

    John F. Burness, Vice President for University Relations, to Frank Rhodes, President of Cornell, September 10, 1986, FRP, Box 160, Folder 59.

  67. 67.

    Belanger, Enabling American Innovation, 219.

  68. 68.

    Submicron Facility Policy Board letter, October 16, 1986.

  69. 69.

    Nam Suh, NSF Assistant Director for Engineering, to National Science Board Committee on Programs and Plans, around October 16, 1986, re: Report on User Research at the National Research and Resource Facility for Submicron Structures, in FRP, Box 160, Folder 59.

  70. 70.

    Both Stanford’s 1992 proposal for the National Nanofabrication Users Facility competition and documents relating to Stanford and Cornell’s 1993 bid for the National Nanofabrication Users Facility Network competition were given to the author by Mary Tang and Nancy Latta.

  71. 71.

    John C. Sanford, “The Development of the Biolistic Process,” In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology—Plant 36.5 (2000): 303–308.

  72. 72.

    Nicole Nelson, “Shooting Genes, Distributing Credit: Narrating the Development of the Biolistic Gene Gun,” Science as Culture 21.2 (2012): 205–232.

  73. 73.

    Peter Galison, Image and Logic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Harry Collins, Robert Evans, Mike Gorman, “Trading Zones and Interactional Expertise,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 38 (2007): 657–666.

  74. 74.

    Cyrus C.M. Mody, Instrumental Community: Probe Microscopy and the Path to Nanotechnology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011).

  75. 75.

    Interview with James Plummer conducted by the author, August 11, 2010, Palo Alto, CA.

  76. 76.

    Rebecca Henderson, “Of Life Cycles Real and Imaginary: The Unexpectedly Long Old Age of Optical Lithography,” Research Policy 24 (1995): 631–643.

  77. 77.

    See Hallonsten and Heinze (this volume) as well as Park Doing, Velvet Revolution at the Synchrotron: Biology, Physics, and Change in Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009).

  78. 78.

    Catherine Westfall, “Rethinking Big Science: Modest, Mezzo, Grand Science and the Development of the Bevalac, 1971–1993,” Isis 94 (2003): 30–56.

  79. 79.

    Doogab Yi, The Integrated Circuit for Bioinformatics: The DNA Chip and Materials Innovation, white paper for Studies in Material Innovation series (Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2010) and Tim Lenoir and Eric Giannella, “The Emergence and Diffusion of DNA Microarray Technology,” Journal of Biomedical Discovery and Collaboration 1 (2006).

  80. 80.

    Edward Wolf, “A Personalized Summary of CNF History,” in The Future of Nanotechnology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell NanoScale Science and Technology Facility, 2007).

  81. 81.

    Linton G. Salmon (program director, Solid State and Microstructures), Adriaan M. de Graaf (deputy director, Division of Materials Research), and Michael K. Lamvik (program director, Instrumentation and Instrument Development), National Science Foundation, to James Plummer, July 20, 1993, packet of materials in preparation for site visit review. Provided to the author by Mary Tang and Nancy Latta.

  82. 82.

    See Westwick, The National Labs for a similar dynamic—each lab in the National Lab system wanted to align and compete with the others in shared domains, but also carve out its own domain distinctive from the rest.

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  1. Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands

    Cyrus C. M. Mody

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  1. Interdisciplinary Center for Science and Technology Studies (IZWT) University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany

    Thomas Heinze

  2. University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany

    Richard Münch

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Mody, C.C.M. (2016). Fabricating an Organizational Field for Research: US Academic Microfabrication Facilities in the 1970s and 1980s. In: Heinze, T., Münch, R. (eds) Innovation in Science and Organizational Renewal. Palgrave Studies in the History of Science and Technology. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59420-4_2

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