Abstract
Focusing on the economic dimension of reintegration, the central questions that this chapter aims to address is: How or whether can a cash-based scheme integrate ex-combatants? It argues that in situations where cash is a substitute for reintegration, economic reintegration of ex-combatants can be understood in terms of how or whether the cash helps ex-combatants to earn a living and have perception and experience of livelihood security. The livelihood of ex-combatants, in this case, is a basic variable that can be analysed by examining the livelihood capitals of ex-combatants. However, this chapter also maintains that reintegration schemes need to be developed by taking into account the needs and aspirations of ex-combatants, the causes and drivers of the preceding armed conflict and the political economy of war to peace transition. This chapter promotes a broader understanding, which can help to locate reintegration as a part of post-conflict recovery and peacebuilding, rather than reintegration as a means of peace agreement implementation.
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Notes
- 1.
The US Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), for instance, provided aid to fund pilot “cash grant” and “cash for seed” initiatives to respond to chronic drought, famine and food insecurity situations in Ethiopia in 2003 (see USAID, 2006). The World Food Programme (WFP) has long been practising the provision of cash and vouchers to people in need of humanitarian support (see WFP, 2006, 2012).
- 2.
Here the term cooperative disarmament is used to refer to a disarmament process in which weapon collection is carried out in voluntary basis rather than by the force. It is cooperative in nature because cooperation of insurgent organisation and its members is vital in carrying out disarmament .
- 3.
Interview with a government official, Kathmandu, January 2013.
- 4.
According to an officer from the Ministry of Peace and Reconstruction (MoPR) who was interviewed in December 2012, the donors who are supportive of the peace process in Nepal through the Nepal Peace Trust Fund (NPTF) include Switzerland, the United Kingdom (UK), Norway, Denmark, Germany and the European Union.
- 5.
Interviews conducted with ex-combatants in Padampur, Chitwan (January 2013), Kathmandu (December 2012) and Dang (February 2013).
- 6.
Interview with a male journalist in Ghorahi, Dang , February 2013.
- 7.
Interview with a combatant in Kathmandu, January 2013.
- 8.
Interviewed in Kohalpur in February 2013.
- 9.
Since elections for local authorities have not been held in Nepal for several years, there is a leadership vacuum in local government bodies such as Village Development Committees (VDC), municipalities, and District Development Committees (DDCs). The “all party mechanism” was set up to bring representatives from the major political parties into the constitutional assembly. Though these mechanisms were officially scrapped by the Ministry of Local Development in 2012, the culture of the “all party mechanism” continues in one way or another in making local governance and development related decisions at the local level.
- 10.
Interview with ex-combatants in, Bujauri VDC, Dang district, February 2013.
- 11.
Interview with a AISC staff, Kathmandu, March 2013.
- 12.
Interview with a male ex-combatant in Kohalpur, February 2013.
- 13.
Interview, Kathmandu, February 2013.
- 14.
Interview in Kathmandu, March 2013. In the year 2012 alone, 528,257 students attended SLC exams. In the year 2011, this figure was close to 480,000.
- 15.
Interview with ex-combatants in, Dang , February 2013.
- 16.
Interviews with ex-combatants , Bijauri, Dang , February 2013.
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
Interview with a civil society leader in Nepalgunj, February 2013.
- 20.
Interview with a private sector leader, Biratnagar, January 2013.
- 21.
Interview with three male commanders in Kathmandu (January 2013), Chitwan (January 2013), and Kohalpur (February 2013).
- 22.
Interview with a male battalion vice-commander, Kohalpur, February 2013.
- 23.
Interview with a business man in Kathmandu, December 2012.
- 24.
Interview with ex-combatants , Chitwan , Kathmandu and Banke , February 2013.
- 25.
Interview with a journalist in Kathmandu, December 2012.
- 26.
Interview with a female ex-combatant, Kathmandu, December 2012.
- 27.
This figure accounts for remittance inflow for only the first ten months of the fiscal year, and, therefore, the actual figure for the entire year must certainly be higher.
- 28.
Interview with a combatant in Kathmandu, December 2013.
- 29.
In the past, there were indeed both proposals from civil society and demands from combatants to send the latter to foreign employment as skilled labour as part of their rehabilitation package. Though some sort of skill and vocational training was included in the final rehabilitation option, targeting foreign employment, ironically no combatants became involved.
- 30.
According to UN report, the VMLRs who were absent at the time of their discharge from cantonments in November–December 2010 are reported to have left the country for foreign employment. This information helps substantiate that foreign employment had already become a popular route for livelihood.
- 31.
Interview with a male ex-combatant in Kathmandu, February 2013.
- 32.
Interview with ex-combatants , Dang , Banke and Chitwan districts, January and February 2013.
- 33.
Interview with an official from Army Integration Special Committee , Kathmandu, March 2013.
- 34.
It was reported in the fieldwork that police has recently held several combatants for being involved in crime and violence . Also see http://www.thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Ex-Maoist+fighters+behind+crimes+in+Valley%3A+Police&NewsID=382819.
- 35.
Ironically, the Maoists used the ex-combatants as a means of power bargaining while the opposition political groups particularly the Nepali Congress and the Communist Party of Nepal Maoists United Marxist and Leninist, tended to diffuse the PLA, without recognition of any possible societal and security consequences of a poorly designed reintegration programme.
- 36.
Interview with a defence analyst in Kathmandu, February 2013.
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Subedi, D.B. (2018). Economic Reintegration. In: Combatants to Civilians. Rethinking Peace and Conflict Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58672-8_7
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