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Imagining Internment: International Law, Social Order and National Community

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Civilian Internment during the First World War

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Abstract

This chapter explores some of the myths and stories about civilian captivity developed by external decision-makers and observers situated outside the camps. In particular, it examines how internment was interpreted in light of contemporary understandings of international law, ‘military necessity’ and the right of states to retaliate in face of misdeeds committed against their own citizens by other states. It also considers the relationship between internment and instances of forced labour, a question replete with political and cultural significance at both local and global levels. Finally, the chapter explains how internment contributed to the construction of ‘national communities’ in wartime. This could happen by a process of negative integration, in other words via exclusion of the enemy ‘other’. But equally, it could take on more positive forms through active support from governments, pressure groups and ordinary people at home for the transnational interests of expatriates trapped in enemy countries abroad.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide, pp. 136–7.

  2. 2.

    Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, p. 423; Smith, Jamaican Volunteers, p. 44.

  3. 3.

    Dieter Pohl, ‘Terror’, in Baranowski, Nolzen and Szejnmann (eds.), A Companion to Nazi Germany, pp. 431–48 (here p. 433).

  4. 4.

    Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide, p. 25.

  5. 5.

    Hull, A Scrap of Paper, pp. 1–2.

  6. 6.

    Becker, Oubliés de la grande guerre, pp. 308–12.

  7. 7.

    Ronald Francis Roxburgh, The Prisoners of War Information Bureau in London, with an introduction by L. Oppenheim (London, 1915), p. ix.

  8. 8.

    See Garner, ‘Treatment of Enemy Aliens’, pp. 27–9; and Speed, Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War, p. 143.

  9. 9.

    Andrew, Defence of the Realm, p. xix, borrows a quote from Sir Michael Howard to illustrate this point: ‘So far as official government policy is concerned, the British security and intelligence services do not exist. Enemy agents are found under gooseberry bushes and intelligence is brought by the storks’.

  10. 10.

    Franz von Liszt, Das Völkerrecht, systematisch dargestellt, 11th ed. (Berlin, 1920), p. 285.

  11. 11.

    Oppenheim’s introduction to Roxburgh, The Prisoners of War Information Bureau, p. vii. Emphasis in the original.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., p. viii.

  13. 13.

    Stibbe, ‘Ein globales Phänomen’, p. 164.

  14. 14.

    See article 50 of the HLKO at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hague04.asp

  15. 15.

    Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 November 1914 [evening edition], cited in Stibbe, British Civilian Internees, p. 40.

  16. 16.

    Kriege to the German consul-general in Bucharest, 23 May 1915, in BArch, R 901/82016.

  17. 17.

    See, for instance, Begriff: ‘Kriegs- und Zivilgefangene’—communiqué issued by the Prussian War Ministry, 17 April 1916. Copies in BHStA-KA, Infanteriedivisionen (WK) 4379, and BArch, R 901/82017.

  18. 18.

    See also Stibbe, ‘(Dis)entangling’, forthcoming.

  19. 19.

    Here I have been particularly influenced by the approach taken in Manz, Constructing a German Diaspora.

  20. 20.

    Sebastian Bischoff, ‘“Die größte Summe von Lügen unserer Feinde knüpft sich an das Wort Belgien”: Die deutsche Presse und die Gräuel-Vorwürfe der Entente, 1914–1918’, in Sebastian Bischoff, Christoph Jahr, Tatjana Mrowka and Jens Thiel (eds.), ‘Belgium is a Beautiful City?’: Resultate und Perspektiven der Historischen Belgienforschung (Münster, 2018), pp. 55–65 (here p. 57).

  21. 21.

    See Otto Just to the governor (Regierungspräsident) of the Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf, 29 September 1914, in LNRW, Abt. Rheinland, Oberpräsidium Düsseldorf, No. 14986, Bl. 70.

  22. 22.

    See the evidence collected in Staatsarchiv Hamburg (henceforth StA Hamburg), Senatskriegsakten, Lz 16a: Gewalttätigkeiten gegen die deutsche Zivilbevölkerung in Feindesland, 1914–1919.

  23. 23.

    Düsseldorf Chamber of Commerce to the governor of the Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf, 27 March 1915, in LNRW, Abt. Rheinland, Oberpräsidium Düsseldorf, No. 14986, Bl. 97.

  24. 24.

    See Reich Office of Interior to the AA, 10 December 1915, in BArch, R 901/82917.

  25. 25.

    See WUA, Reihe III/Bd. 2, pp. 719–855.

  26. 26.

    See Reichskolonialamt, Denkschrift über die Behandlung der deutschen Bevölkerung seitens der französischen und englischen Truppen und Behörden in den von diesen besetzten Teilen der Kolonien, n.d. [1914/15]. Copy in BArch, R 1501/112364, Bl. 83–6. Also Reich Colonial Office to the AA, 17 February 1915, in BArch, R 901/82915.

  27. 27.

    Ernst Müller-Meiningen, Weltkrieg und Völkerrecht. Eine Anklage gegen die Kriegsführung des Dreiverbandes (Berlin, 1915).

  28. 28.

    AA to the Reich Office of Interior, 10 December 1915, in BArch, R 901 /82917.

  29. 29.

    Vergleich der Berichte des Genfer Roten Kreuzes über die englischen und französischen Sammellager mit den Festellungen des Reichskommissars zur Erörterung von Gewalttätigkeiten gegen deutsche Zivilpersonen in Feindesland (Berlin, 1915), p. 5. Copy in BArch, R 67/779.

  30. 30.

    Reich Office of Interior to the AA, 10 December 1915, in BArch, R 901 /82917.

  31. 31.

    k.u.k. Ministerium des Äussern (ed.), Sammlung von Nachweisen für die Verletzungen des Völkerrechts durch die mit Österreich-Ungarn kriegführenden Staaten, 4 vols. (Vienna 1915–1916). The abridged English version bore the title Collection of Evidence Concerning the Violations of International Law by the Countries at War with Austria-Hungary, and the abridged French version appeared as Recueil de témoignages concernant les actes de violation du droit des gens commis par les États en guerre avec l’Autriche-Hongrie.

  32. 32.

    ‘Einleitende Bemerkungen’, in k.u.k. Ministerium des Äussern (ed.), Sammlung von Nachweisen, Vol. 1, pp. XI–XIII (here p. XI).

  33. 33.

    Ibid., pp. XI–XII.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., pp. XII-XIII.

  35. 35.

    Stibbe, ‘Civilian Internment and Civilian Internees’, p. 68. See also Austro-Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs to Austro-Hungarian envoy in Bern, n.d. [April 1916]. Copy in SBA, E27, 1000/721, Bd. 2906.

  36. 36.

    See Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, esp. pp. 317–25.

  37. 37.

    See the report on the previous day’s debates in the House of Lords published in the Morning Post, 23 February 1917. Copy in HLL, Masterman Collection, Box 21.

  38. 38.

    On Livingstone, see Jones, Violence, p. 16.

  39. 39.

    Adelaide Livingstone, ‘Report on the Camp for Interned Civilians at Holzminden’, 4 December 1916, in TNA, FO 383/210. Corroborating evidence can be found in the ICRC newssheet Nouvelles de l’Agence internationale des prisonniers de guerre, which on 5 January 1918 carried a report on the release of seventy ‘Belgian women of low morals’ who had been held at Holzminden ‘for close to a year, or in some cases for longer’. Copy in ACICR, C G1, A 42–01.

  40. 40.

    For British views, see also Tracey Loughran, Shell-Shock and Medical Culture in First World War Britain (Cambridge, 2016), p. 228.

  41. 41.

    Gerard to Page, 8 November 1914, in TNA, FO 369/714.

  42. 42.

    Grew to Tom Perry, 6 December 1914, in Houghton Library, Cambridge, MA (henceforth HL), Grew Papers, MS Am 1687 (5).

  43. 43.

    See Panayi, Prisoners of Britain, esp. pp. 26, 80, 105, 133, 143–4 and 271.

  44. 44.

    On German protests, see Kordan, ‘Internment in Canada’, p. 177, n. 1.

  45. 45.

    Lord Newton, Retrospection (London, 1941), pp. 237 and 243.

  46. 46.

    Kordan, ‘Internment in Canada’, pp. 165–6.

  47. 47.

    Manz and Panayi, Enemies in the Empire.

  48. 48.

    Kordan, ‘Internment in Canada’, p. 172.

  49. 49.

    Ibid., pp. 173–4.

  50. 50.

    For a further discussion, see Stibbe, ‘(Dis)entangling’.

  51. 51.

    Kordan, ‘Internment in Canada’, p. 174.

  52. 52.

    See article 43 of the 1907 HLKO at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hague04.asp. Also Philipp Nivet, La France occupée, 1914–1918 (Paris, 2011), pp. 52–4.

  53. 53.

    Begriff: ‘Kriegs- und Zivilgefangene’ (as note 17 above).

  54. 54.

    Ibid.

  55. 55.

    Thiel, ‘Menschenbassin Belgien’, pp. 156–62.

  56. 56.

    Ibid., p. 161.

  57. 57.

    The War Ministry maintained this stance to the end of the war and beyond—see, for instance, Doegen, Kriegsgefangene Völker, Vol. 1, p. 175.

  58. 58.

    Commander of the second Bavarian army corps, 2 March 1917, in BayHStA-KA, Generalkommando II. Bayerisches Armeekorps (WK) 693, Bd. 5.

  59. 59.

    Quarter Master General to Prussian Ministry of War, 24 February 1917. Copy in BayHStA-KA, Generalkommando I. Armeekorps (WK) 2005.

  60. 60.

    Watson, Ring of Steel, p. 381.

  61. 61.

    See the competing interpretations offered by Marc Michel, ‘Intoxication ou “brutalisation”? Les “represailles” de la grande guerre’, 14–18 aujourd’hui today heute, 4 (2001), pp. 175–97; and Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, pp. 56–65 and 87–91.

  62. 62.

    Jones, Violence, p. 168. See also Heather Jones, ‘The German Spring Reprisals of 1917: Prisoners of War and the Violence of the Western Front’, German History, 26.3 (2008), pp. 335–56.

  63. 63.

    Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, p. 81; Heather Jones, ‘International Law and Western Front Prisoners in the First World War’, in Pathé and Théofilakis (eds.), Wartime Captivity, pp. 30–43 (here esp. pp. 36–7).

  64. 64.

    Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, pp. 158–69.

  65. 65.

    See, for instance, Rapports de MM. Dr. C. Manuel et A. Eugster sur leurs visites aux camps de prisonniers en France et en Allemagne du 22 février au 11 mars 1915 (Geneva and Paris, 1915), p. 46; and Rapports de M. le Dr. A. Vernet et M. Richard de Muralt sur leurs visites aux dépôts de prisonniers en Tunisie et de MM. P. Schazmann et Dr. O.-L. Kramer sur leurs visites aux dépôts de prisonniers en Algérie en décembre 1915 et janvier 1916 (Geneva and Paris, 1916), pp. 23, 27–8 and 60–2.

  66. 66.

    Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, p. 59.

  67. 67.

    Stibbe, ‘Enemy Aliens, Deportees, Refugees’, p. 493.

  68. 68.

    Katharina Stampler, ‘Flüchtlingswesen in der Steiermark, 1914–1918’, Magisterarbeit, University of Graz, 2004, pp. 65–8.

  69. 69.

    Erlass des KÜA, 15 November 1914, in ÖStA-HHStA, Karton 556, 26/2a, Zl. 14. This measure was accompanied by a wave of Anglophobia in the Austrian, and in particular the Viennese, press, lasting well into 1915. See also Watson, Ring of Steel, pp. 243–4.

  70. 70.

    See the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the KÜA, 6 April 1916, and the KÜA to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 4 May 1916, in ÖStA-HHStA, Karton 556, 26/2a, Zl. 48. Also Deutsche Gruppe C, Bericht umfassend die Zeit vom 1. bis 30. September 1915, p. 72, in ÖStA-KA, GZNB, Karton 3732, Zl. 2063.

  71. 71.

    Austro-Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Minister-Presidents in Vienna and Budapest, 20 June 1916. Copy in ÖStA-AVA, MdI, Allg. Sign. 19/1916, Zl. 33334.

  72. 72.

    Murphy, Colonial Captivity, p. 163.

  73. 73.

    Mai, Die Marokko-Deutschen, p. 666.

  74. 74.

    Austro-Hungarian Ambassador in Madrid to Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Vienna, 20 December 1915, in ÖStA-HHStA, Karton 563, 27/1a, Zl. 246.

  75. 75.

    Austrian Red Cross, Fürsorgekomitee für Kriegsgefangene, to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 4 November 1915, in ibid., Zl. 227.

  76. 76.

    Farcy, Les camps de concentration, pp. 177–80.

  77. 77.

    Kordan, ‘Internment in Canada’, pp. 174–5.

  78. 78.

    Panayi, Prisoners of Britain, pp. 139 and 155–7.

  79. 79.

    Rapports de MM. Dr. C. Manuel et A. Eugster (as note 65 above), p. 46.

  80. 80.

    Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, pp. 156–8 and 164; Jones, Violence, p. 152.

  81. 81.

    Stibbe, British Civilian Internees, pp. 122–3 and 151.

  82. 82.

    Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, pp. 141–4, 149–55, 182 and 296.

  83. 83.

    See also Kramer, ‘Wackes at War’, pp. 108–110.

  84. 84.

    Watson, Ring of Steel, p. 145.

  85. 85.

    See ‘Einleitende Bemerkungen’, in k.u.k. Ministerium des Äussern (ed.), Sammlung von Nachweisen, Vol. 1, pp. XI–XII.

  86. 86.

    Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, p. 166. See also Nivet, La France occupée, pp. 191–2.

  87. 87.

    Hull, A Scrap of Paper, p. 101, n. 13. See also Smith, ‘The Kiss of France’, pp. 28–9.

  88. 88.

    Protokoll der Sitzung der Auskunfts- und Hilfsstelle für Deutsche im Ausland und Ausländer in Deutschland, 20 October 1916, in EZA, Bestand 51 C III a 4/2.

  89. 89.

    For the 30,000 military POWs see Jones, Violence, pp. 115–16. For the 250 French ‘Zivilgefangene’ deported with them (and returned to Holzminden after France had submitted to Germany’s demands), see Prussian War Ministry to AA, 6 November 1916, in BArch, R 901/82917.

  90. 90.

    See US ambassador in Vienna to Austro-Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 27 June 1916, forwarding note from US ambassador in Paris, 20 June 1916, in ÖStA-HHStA, Karton 563, 27/1a. Zl. 301. Also German embassy to Vienna to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 21 June 1916, in ibid., Zl. 299.

  91. 91.

    Murphy, Colonial Captivity, pp. 163–4 and 177; Mai, Die Marokko-Deutschen, pp. 674–5 and 680–2. On neutral internment, see also Chap. 5.

  92. 92.

    Stibbe, ‘Ein globales Phänomen’, p. 165.

  93. 93.

    Protokoll der Sitzung der Auskunfts- und Hilfsstelle für Deutsche im Ausland und Ausländer in Deutschland, 1 November 1917, in EZA, Bestand 51 C III a 4/2. For more on Rotten, see Chap. 5.

  94. 94.

    Jones, Violence, pp. 159–60.

  95. 95.

    Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, esp. pp. 62–8 and 268–72. See also Kramer, ‘Prisoners in the First World War’, esp. pp. 79 and 81–2.

  96. 96.

    As reported in the Bulletin International des sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, no. 194, April 1918, pp. 221–2.

  97. 97.

    See Isabel V. Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany (Ithaca, NY and London, 2005), esp. pp. 145–8, 321 and 332–3.

  98. 98.

    Nine-page memorandum signed by Bethmann Hollweg, Berlin, 31 October 1916 (here pp. 2–3), in BArch, R 901/82917.

  99. 99.

    Gerhard Ritter, Staatskunst und Kriegshandwerk: Das Problem des ‘Militarismus’ in Deutschland. Bd. 3: Die Trägodie des Staatskunsts: Bethmann Hollweg als Kriegskanzler (1914–1917) (Munich, 1964), p. 448.

  100. 100.

    AA, note to the US ambassador in Berlin, 14 July 1916, forwarded to the British Foreign Office, 31 July 1916. Copy in TNA, FO 383/198.

  101. 101.

    WUA, Reihe III/Bd. 2, pp. 719–855.

  102. 102.

    Ketchum, Ruhleben, p. xviii. See also Speed, Prisoners, Diplomats, and the Great War, pp. 152–3.

  103. 103.

    Michael Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. by Alan Sheridan (London, 1977).

  104. 104.

    See Andreas Fahrmeir, ‘Passports and the Status of Aliens’, in Martin H. Geyer and Johannes Paulmann (eds.), The Mechanics of Internationalism: Culture, Society and Politics from the 1840s to the First World War (Oxford, 2001), pp. 93–119 (here esp. pp. 98–101). On similar fears of ‘alien pauperism’ in Imperial Germany, and use of expulsion as an administrative tool to control this at state and Reich level, see Christoph Rass, ‘Praktiken der Exklusion: Die Reichsverweisung im Migrationsregime des Deutschen Reichs 1871/75 bis 1914/18’, IMIS-Beiträge, 52 (2018), pp. 97–138.

  105. 105.

    Fahrmeir, ‘Passports and the Status of Aliens’, pp. 113–16; Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerbeschäftigung, pp. 22–7.

  106. 106.

    One example among many would be the nineteenth-century Bavarian laws surrounding use of ‘police detention’ as a ‘corrective measure’ (Besserungsmaßnahme). See here Joseph Schiller, Die Polizeihaft in Bayern (Kallmünz, 1931), esp. pp. 38–41. Also Rass, ‘Praktiken der Exklusion’, p. 118.

  107. 107.

    For the case of British nationals trapped in Germany, see Gerard to Page, 14 October, 16 November and 12 December 1914, all in TNA, FO 369/712.

  108. 108.

    Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerbeschäftigung, pp. 87–8.

  109. 109.

    On the financial difficulties that alien women in particular could find themselves in, see Matthew Stibbe, ‘Elisabeth Rotten and the Auskunfts- und Hilfsstelle für Deutsche im Ausland und Ausländer in Deutschland, 1914–1919’, in Alison S. Fell and Ingrid Sharp (eds.), The Women’s Movement in Wartime: International Perspectives, 1914–19 (Basingstoke, 2007), pp. 194–210; and Zoë Denness, ‘Gender and Germanophobia: The Forgotten Experiences of German Women in Britain, 1914–1919’, in Panayi (ed.), Germans as Minorities, pp. 71–97.

  110. 110.

    Forth. Barbed-Wire Imperialism, p. 4.

  111. 111.

    Stibbe, ‘The Internment of Enemy Aliens’, pp. 66–7.

  112. 112.

    Kordan, ‘Internment in Canada’.

  113. 113.

    Schönwalder diary, entry for 27 March 1916, in MNH, MS 12028.

  114. 114.

    Panayi, Prisoners of Britain, pp. 155 and 241–44.

  115. 115.

    Susan R. Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War: Gender, Motherhood, and Politics in Britain and France during the First World War (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1999), p. 155.

  116. 116.

    District Commissioner in Waidhofen to KÜA, 10 November 1914, in ÖStA-KA, KÜA, Zl. 9634.

  117. 117.

    Panayi, Prisoners of Britain, pp. 152–3.

  118. 118.

    ‘Aliens sent to gaol’, Ramsey Courier, 3 May 1918.

  119. 119.

    The first major study of this phenomenon was Ute Daniel’s The War from Within: German Working-Class Women in the First World War, trans. by Margaret Ries (Oxford, 1997) [1989]—see here esp. pp. 160–71 and 198–203. For fears about wartime ‘youth delinquency’ in particular, see also Maureen Healy, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I (Cambridge, 2004).

  120. 120.

    Farcy, Les camps de concentration, p. 98.

  121. 121.

    Ibid., p. 100.

  122. 122.

    See, for instance, the proclamations issued by the acting commanders of the first, second and third Bavarian army corps, 26 September 1915, in BayHStA-KA, Stellvertretendes Generalkommando I. Armeekorps (WK) 986.

  123. 123.

    Bavarian War Ministry to the acting commanders of the first, second and third Bavarian army corps, 17 February 1917, in ibid.

  124. 124.

    Police Chief of Essen to the governor of the Düsseldorf region, 6 March 1916, in LNRW, Abt. Rheinland, Oberpräsidium Düsseldorf, No. 15001, Bl. 58.

  125. 125.

    See, for example, the cutting from the Mangfallischen Zeitung, No. 107, 9 September 1916, in BayHStA-KA, Stellvertretendes Generalkommando I. Armeekorps (WK) 986.

  126. 126.

    Bavarian War Ministry to the acting commanders of the first, second and third Bavarian army corps, 17 February 1917, in ibid.

  127. 127.

    Prussian War Ministry to the acting commanders of all Prussian (and Bavarian) army corps, 17 January 1917, in ibid.

  128. 128.

    On Holzminden, see the allegations contained in the French newspaper Le Matin, 9 April 1916, and Spanish embassy in Berlin to AA, 19 June 1916, copies of both in BArch, R 901/82917; and on Havelberg see ‘Les prisonniers au camp de Havelberg (Brandebourg)’, Le Genevois, no. 17, 17 January 1918. Copy in BArch, R 901/84319.

  129. 129.

    Farcy, Les camps de concentration, pp. 82–7.

  130. 130.

    Ibid., pp. 77–80; Grayzel, Women’s Identities, pp. 122–3.

  131. 131.

    Nancy M. Wingfield, The World of Prostitution in Late Imperial Austria (Oxford, 2017), here esp. p. 14.

  132. 132.

    Grayzel, Women’s Identities, pp. 122, 129–30, 140 and 150–2.

  133. 133.

    See the report submitted by the Swiss consulate in New York to the Swiss Legation in Washington DC, 26 September 1918, in SBA, E2020, 1000/130, Bd. 73.

  134. 134.

    Hilfskomitee of the POW Relief Committee, Fort Oglethorpe, to the Swiss Legation in Washington DC, 3 September 1918, in SBA, E2200.36, 1000/1738, Bd. 10.

  135. 135.

    Nagler, Nationale Minoritäten, p. 595.

  136. 136.

    Central Committee of Internees, Fort Oglethorpe, to the Swiss Legation in Washington DC, 30 August 1919, in SBA, E2200.36, 1000/1738, Bd. 10.

  137. 137.

    See the relevant correspondence in SBA, E2020, 1000/130, Bd. 73. Also Nagler, Nationale Minoritäten, pp. 593–4.

  138. 138.

    Jörg Nagler, ‘Victims of the Home Front: Enemy Aliens in the United States during the First World War’, in Panayi (ed.), Minorities in Wartime, pp. 191–215 (here pp. 211–13).

  139. 139.

    Nagler, Nationale Minoritäten, pp. 539–40 and 691.

  140. 140.

    Nagler, ‘Victims of the Home Front’, p. 213.

  141. 141.

    Memorandum for Mr. Post, Assistant Secretary for Labor, 6 August 1918, in NARA, RG 174, Box 174, 167/626.

  142. 142.

    Post to L. L. Thompson, Attorney General, Washington State, n.d. [May 1920?], in NARA, RG 174, Box 177, 167/255.

  143. 143.

    Nagler, Nationale Minoritäten, p. 561. The IWW (Industrial Workers of the World or ‘Wobblies’) were a pre-war anarchist group founded in Chicago, IL, in 1905.

  144. 144.

    See, for instance, the use of this phrase in Commander of the second Bavarian army corps, Korpstagesbefehl, 12 November 1915 and Supreme Commander of the Sixth Army to all army corps commanders, 17 December 1915. Copies of both in BayHStA-KA, Generalkommando II. Bayerisches Armeekorps (WK) 693, Bd. 2: Kriegsgefangene, 1915–17.

  145. 145.

    Rear Inspectorate of the Sixth Army to the Quarter Master General, 27 December 1916, in BayHStA-KA, Etappenformationen (WK) 172.

  146. 146.

    See also Supreme Commander of the Sixth Army to all army corps commanders, 12 November 1916, in BayHStA-KA, Infanteriedivisionen (WK) 4074.

  147. 147.

    Quarter Master General, ‘Neuaufstellung von Z.A.B.s und Einziehung von Ersatzarbeitern’, 2 January 1917, in BayHStA-KA, Etappenformationen (WK) 147.

  148. 148.

    Wyndham’s War—the Diaries of Thomas Wyndham Richards, a Cardiff Schoolmaster interned in Ruhleben and Havelberg, 1914–1918, edited by Derek Richards (Newport, 2014), p. 341 (diary entry for 17 December 1917).

  149. 149.

    See Hull, Scrap of Paper, p. 140; and Jones, Violence, p. 185.

  150. 150.

    For the relevant documents see BayHStA-KA, Stellvertretendes Generalkommando I. Bayerisches Armeekorps (WK) 678.

  151. 151.

    Inspectorate for POW camps of the first Bavarian army corps to the acting commander of the Bavarian first army corps, 19 June 1918, in ibid. On the proposed camp at Weilheim, and its link to the fight against ‘Arbeitscheue’, see also Stibbe, ‘(Dis)entangling’, forthcoming.

  152. 152.

    On hostile attitudes towards impoverished city-dwellers in southern Bavaria, both during and after the war, see Benjamin Ziemann, War Experiences in Rural Germany, 1914–1923, trans. by Alex Skinner (Oxford, 2007) [1997], esp. pp. 191–209; and Martin H. Geyer, Verkehrte Welt: Revolution, Inflation und Moderne. München 1914–1924 (Göttingen, 1998), pp. 184–6.

  153. 153.

    Anschütz to Lewenz, 23 January 1915. Copy in HLL, Ettinghausen Collection, Box 6, File 5.

  154. 154.

    Farcy, Les camps de concentration, p. 33.

  155. 155.

    Ibid., pp. 36–7.

  156. 156.

    Lohr, Nationalizing the Russian Empire, pp. 26–7.

  157. 157.

    Healy, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire, esp. pp. 148–57 and 311.

  158. 158.

    See Daily Mail, 16 February 1917; and the Times, 8 October 1918. Copies of both in HLL, Masterman Collection, Box 21.

  159. 159.

    Newton, Retrospection, pp. 264, 267 and 270–9. The amendment was unpopular with the right-wing press, because it offered certain protections to those aliens who had lived in Britain for a long period of time and ‘against whom no allegation [of disloyalty] had been made’. However, after some further parliamentary battles it was ultimately accepted by the House of Commons on 18 December 1919.

  160. 160.

    Katja Wüstenbecker, ‘Politik gegenüber ethnischen Minderheiten im Vergleich: die deutschstämmige Bevölkerung in Kanada und den USA im Ersten Weltkrieg’, in Eisfeld, Hausmann and Neutatz (eds.), Besetzt, interniert, deportiert, pp. 263–82 (here p. 281).

  161. 161.

    Ibid., p. 276.

  162. 162.

    Newton, Retrospection, p. 277.

  163. 163.

    Stibbe, British Civilian Internees, pp. 138–43.

  164. 164.

    Ibid., p. 118. On the Central Prisoners of War Committee, see also Durbach, ‘The Parcel is Political’.

  165. 165.

    British Red Cross Society, Central POW Committee, to Joseph Powell, 26 January 1917, in HLL, Ettinghausen Collection, Box 5, File 17.

  166. 166.

    Jan Vermeiren, The First World War and German National Identity: The Dual Alliance at War (Cambridge, 2016), p. 218.

  167. 167.

    Volksspende für die Deutsche Kriegs- und Zivilgefangenen, founding appeal, June 1916. Copies in BayHStA-KA, Kriegsministerium 13761 and BArch, R 67/1849.

  168. 168.

    Protokoll der am 26. Mai 1916 im Kriegsministerium abgehaltenen Sitzung zur Besprechung über die ‘Volksspende für die deutschen Kriegs- und Zivilgefangenen’, in BayHStA-KA, Kriegsministerium 13761.

  169. 169.

    Mai, Die Marokko-Deutschen, p. 687. On ‘neutral’ internment in Switzerland, see also Chap. 5.

  170. 170.

    Stibbe, ‘Elisabeth Rotten’, p. 201. For more on Rotten, see also Chap. 5.

  171. 171.

    Stürgkh to Finance Ministry, 5 July 1916, in Österreichisches Staatsarchiv Vienna, Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv (henceforth ÖStA-AVA), MdI., Allg., Sign. 19, Zl. 33334/1916.

  172. 172.

    See, for example, ‘Unsere Kriegsgefangenen und Internierten in Frankreich, England und den neutralen Staaten, Dezember-Bericht [1917]’, in ÖStA-KA, AOK/GZNB, Karton 3756, Zl. 4925.

  173. 173.

    Swiss Legation in Berlin to the Federal Political Department, Bern, 30 March 1918, in SBA, E2020, 1000/130, Bd. 73.

  174. 174.

    Bericht über die Sitzung des Hauptausschusses der Volksspende für die deutschen Kriegs- und Zivilgefangenen am 18. Januar 1918. Copy in BayHStA-KA, Kriegsministerium 13761.

  175. 175.

    Swedish Legation (Austro-Hungarian division), report covering visit of inspection to the Nell Lane Military hospital in West Didsbury, Manchester, on December 14th, 1918, dated 8 January 1919, in TNA, FO 383/478. By this time, of course, the Habsburg monarchy no longer existed.

  176. 176.

    Louis Jacquet, Rapport concernant l’Universitaire Populaire du Camp du Holzminden, 9 March 1916, in BArch, R 901/82917.

  177. 177.

    Extract from an article in Le Matin, 9 April 1916. Translated into German by the ‘Auslandsnachrichtenstelle des Auswärtigen Amtes’ (foreign news service of the AA). Copy in ibid.

  178. 178.

    See here Peter Gatrell and Liubov Zhvanko (eds.), Europe on the Move: Refugees in the Era of the Great War (Manchester, 2016).

  179. 179.

    Manz, Constructing a German Diaspora, p. 263.

  180. 180.

    As Giovanna Procacci has recently shown, this also needs to be seen in the context of a more general failure of the Italian state to meet the wartime social welfare needs of its citizens. See Procacci, Warfare-Welfare, pp. 58–61 and 78–9, n. 53.

  181. 181.

    See, for example, Italienische Zensurgruppe B, Spezialbericht, 11 September 1915, and Bericht der Italienischen Zensurgruppe B, 5 January 1918, in ÖStA-KA, AOK/GZNB, Karton 3732, Zl. 1917 and Karton 3756, Zl. 4936.

  182. 182.

    See Verzeichnis der zivilinternierten Triestiner und Trentiner in Frankreich, 7 August 1917, in AST, Direzione di Polizia, Atti Presidiali Riservati, no. 403/785–17.

  183. 183.

    Matthias Egger, ‘Gekämpft, gefangen und vergessen? Die k.u.k. Regierung und die österreichisch-ungarischen Kriegsgefangenen in Russland 1914–1918’, D.Phil dissertation, University of Salzburg, 2018, here esp. pp. 10 and 17.

  184. 184.

    Jones, ‘International or Transnational?’, esp. pp. 709–10.

  185. 185.

    See Durbach, ‘The Parcel is Political’, p. 105.

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    Matthew Stibbe

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Stibbe, M. (2019). Imagining Internment: International Law, Social Order and National Community. In: Civilian Internment during the First World War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57191-5_4

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