Skip to main content

Introduction: EU Gender Equality Policy-Making

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Actors, Institutions, and the Making of EU Gender Equality Programs

Part of the book series: Gender and Politics ((GAP))

  • 652 Accesses

Abstract

In this chapter, Ahrens presents her actor-centred sociological approach to studying EU gender equality policy-making by introducing policy programmes as a common supranational measure of soft law. Ahrens offers a critical reading of Giddens’ structuration theory and its application to EU gender equality policy and analyses the milestones in the history of the EU gender equality policy in terms of its actors, (legislative) scope and content. Ahrens claims that how gender equality policy is produced can only be investigated by analysing the participating actors, their (in)formal relationships and institutionalised policy processes that ultimately determine the final content of gender equality within the context of the EU system.

I miss the times when women’s issues, gender issues were a priority.

(Interview with NGO representative)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abels, Gabriele. 2011. Gender Equality Policy. In Policies within the EU Multi-Level System. Instruments and Strategies of European Governance, ed. Hubert Heinelt and Michèle Knodt, 325–348. Baden-Baden: Nomos.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Abels, Gabriele, and Joyce Marie Mushaben. 2012. Gendering the European Union: New Approaches to Old Democratic Deficits. Houndmills, Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2012. Introduction: Studying the EU from a Gender Perspective. In Gendering the European Union: New Approaches to Old Democratic Deficits, ed. Gabriele Abels and Joyce Marie Mushaben, 1–21. Houndmills, Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acker, Joan. 1990. Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations. Gender & Society 2: 139–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1992. From Sex Roles to Gendered Institutions. Contemporary Sociology 21 (5): 565–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahrens, Petra. 2002. Gender Mainstreaming in der Beschäftigungspolitik der Europäischen Union – Im Spannungsfeld feministischer Theorien und politischer Praxis. Thesis, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Hamburg: Diplomica.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2008. More Actors Butter No Parsnips: Gaining Insights into Gender Equality Programs of the European Union. 4th Pan-European Conference on EU Politics, University of Latvia, 25–27 September 2008, Riga, Latvia.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2015. Das Ende einer Ära? Gleichstellungspolitische Programme der Europäischen Union. femina politica 24 (2): 105–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahrens, Petra, and Jochen Geppert. 2005. Gender Mainstreaming als Organisationsentwicklung, text version of the eponymous speech, Conference “Implementierung von Gender Mainstreaming in der öffentlichen Verwaltung – Chancen und Herausforderungen der Organisationsentwicklung”, June 27, 2005, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Gender KompetenzZentrum. Accessed October 1, 2013. www.genderkompetenz.info/w/files/gkompzpdf/vortrag_gm_als_oe.pdf.

  • Ahrens, Petra, and Sandra Lewalter. 2005. Möglichkeiten der Steuerung bei der Umsetzung von Gender Mainstreaming im Übergang zur Regelpraxis, text version of the eponymous speech, Conference “Implementierung von Gender Mainstreaming in der öffentlichen Verwaltung – Chancen und Herausforderungen der Organisationsentwicklung”, June 27, 2005. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Gender KompetenzZentrum. Accessed October 1, 2013. www.genderkompetenz.info/w/files/gkompzpdf/vortrag_steuerungsmöglichkeiten.pdf.

  • ———. 2006. Das Europäische Institut für Gleichstellungsfragen – Was lange währt wird endlich gut? femina politica 2: 124–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahrens, Petra, and Anna van der Vleuten. 2017. EU Gender Equality Policies and Politics – New Modes of Governance. In Gender and Diversity Studies in European Perspectives, ed. Carola Bauschke-Urban and Ingrid Jungwirth. Opladen: Barbara Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amiraux, Valérie, and Virginie Guiraudon. 2010. Discrimination in Comparative Perspective: Policies and Practices. American Behavioral Scientist 53 (12): 1691–1714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, James E. 2010. Public Policymaking. An Introduction. 7th ed. Boston: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berghahn, Sabine. 1998. Zwischen marktvermittelter Geschlechtergleichheit im europäischen “Herrenclub” und den patriarchalischen Traditionalismen von Mitgliedsstaaten: Gibt es einen “Mehrwert” der europäischen Gleichheitsentwicklung für Frauen?’. femina politica 7 (2): 46–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berghahn, Sabine, and Maria Wersig. 2005. Einflüsse des Europäischen Rechts auf die Geschlechterverhältnisse und andere Diskriminierungsgründe, genderpolitikonline, Berlin. http://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/tagungen/eurorecht_geschl_bergh_wers.pdf.

  • Beveridge, Fiona. 2007. Building Against the Past: The Impact of Mainstreaming on EU Gender Law and Policy. European Law Review 32: 193–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beveridge, Fiona, and Samantha Velluti. 2008. Gender and the Open Method of Coordination: Perspectives on Law, Governance and Equality in the EU. Aldershot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. (2008). Gender and the OMC: Conclusion and Prospects. In Gender and the Open Method of Coordination: Perspectives on Law, Governance and Equality in the EU, ed. Fiona Beveridge and Samantha Velluti, 191–208. Adlershot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, Pierre. 2005. Die männliche Herrschaft. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite, Mary. 2001. Gender Mainstreaming in the European Commission: Explaining the Roller Coaster of Progress and Regression. Brussels: Engender.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bretherton, Charlotte. 2001. Gender Mainstreaming and EU Enlargement: Swimming against the Tide? Journal of European Public Policy 8 (1): 60–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bretherton, Charlotte, and Liz Sperling. 1996. Women’s Networks and the European Union: Towards an Inclusive Approach? Journal of Common Market Studies 4: 487–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, Christopher, and David Jary (ed.), (2001), The Contemporary Giddens: Social Theory in a Globalizing Age. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, Christopher, and David Jary (ed.). (2001). Anthony Giddens: A Global Social Theorist. In The Contemporary Giddens: Social Theory in a Globalizing Age, ed. Christopher Bryant and David Jary, 3–41. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Büchs, Milena. 2007. New Governance in European Social Policy: The Open Method of Coordination. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, Judith. 1990. Gender Trouble Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Büttner, Sebastian M., Lucia Leopold, Steffen Mau, and Matthias Posvic. 2015. Professionalization in EU Policy-Making? The Typology of the Transnational Field of EU Affairs. European Societies 17 (4): 569–592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavaghan, Rosalind. 2012. Gender Mainstreaming as a Knowledge Process: Towards an Understanding of Perpetuation and Change in Gender Blindness and Gender Bias. PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chappell, Louise. 2010. Comparative Gender and Institutions: Directions for Research. Perspectives on Politics 8 (1): 183–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Checkel, Jeffrey T. 1998. The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory. World Politics 50: 324–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. International Institutions and Socialization in Europe: Introduction and Framework. International Organization 59 (4): 801–826.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen, Thomas, Knud Erik Jørgensen, and Antje Wiener. 2001. Introduction. In The Social Construction of Europe, ed. Thomas Christiansen, Knud Erik Jørgensen, and Antje Wiener, 1–19. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cichowski, Rachel A. 2001. Judicial Rulemaking and the Institutionalization of European Union Sex Equality Policy. In The Institutionalization of Europe, ed. Alec Stone Sweet, Wayne Sandholtz, and Neil Fligstein, 112–136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, Michael D., James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen. 1972. A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice. Administrative Science Quarterly 17 (1): 1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, Raewyn. 1987. Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corbett, Richard, Francis Jacobs, and Michael Shackleton. (2011). The European Parliament: 8th. Rev. ed. London: John Harper Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Council of Europe/Group of Specialists on Mainstreaming. 1999. Gender Mainstreaming. Conceptual Framework, Methodology and Presentation of Good Practice. Final report of Activities of the Group of Specialists on Mainstreaming (EG-S-MS). Summary. EC (99) 3. Strasbourg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, Mai’a K.D. 2011. Security Integration in Europe: How Knowledge-Based Networks are Transforming the European Union. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, Kathy, Monique Leijenaar, and Jantine Oldersma, eds. 1991. The Gender of Power6. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiMaggio, Paul J., and Walter W. Powell. 1983. The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields. American Sociological Review 48: 147–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Doorne-Huiskes, Anneke. 1997. Equal Opportunities in the European Union: Theory and Practice. In Gender and Economics: A European Perspective, ed. A. Geske Dijkstra and Janneke Plantenga. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellina, Chrystalla A. 2003. Promoting Women’s Rights the Politics of Gender in the European Union. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, Evelyn. 1998. European Community Sex Equality Law. New York: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epiney, Astrid, and Marianne Freiermuth Abt. 2003. Das Recht der Gleichstellung von Mann und Frau in der EU. Baden-Baden: Nomos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, ed. 2002. Why We Need a New Welfare State. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. 2013. PROGRESS Annual Performance Monitoring Report 2012. Monitoring of the Performance of the European Union Programme for Employment and Social Solidarity. PROGRESS (2007–13). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, Mary. 2003. Gender and Social Theory. Buckingham: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewig, Christina, and Myra Marx Ferree. 2013. Feminist Organizing: What’s Old, What’s New? History, Trends and Issues. In The Oxford Handbook of Gender and Politics, ed. Georgina Waylen, Karen Celis, Johanna Kantola, and Laurel S. Weldon, 437–461. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkner, Gerda. 2000. Policy Networks in a Multi-Level System: Convergence Towards Moderate Diversity? West European Politics 23 (4): 94–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Favell, Adrien, and Virginie Guiraudon, eds. 2011. Sociology of the European Union. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———, eds. 2011. Introduction. In Sociology of the European Union, ed. Adrien Favell and Virginie Guiraudon. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, Nancy, and Axel Honneth. 2005. Umverteilung oder Anerkennung?: Eine politisch-philosophische Kontroverse. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredman, Sandra. 1992. European Community Discrimination Law: A Critique. The Industrial Law Journal 20 (2): 119–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2006. Transformation or Dilution: Fundamental Rights in the EU Social Space. European Law Journal 12 (1): 41–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey, Regina. 2003. Gender im Mainstreaming: Geschlechtertheorie und -praxis im internationalen Diskurs. Königstein/Taunus: Helmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuhrmann, Nora. 2005. Geschlechterpolitik im Prozess der europäischen Integration. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Galligan, Yvonne, and Sara Clavero. 2012. Gendering Enlargement of the EU. In Gendering the European Union: New Approaches to Old Democratic Deficits, ed. Gabriele Abels and Joyce Marie Mushaben, 104–123. Houndmills, Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Geddes, Andrew, and Virginie Guiraudon. 2004. Britain, France, and EU Anti-Discrimination Policy: The Emergence of an EU Policy Paradigm. West European Politics 27 (2): 334–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giddens, Anthony. 1976. New Rules of Sociological Method: A Positive Critique of Interpretative Sociologies. London: Hutchinson.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1979. Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradiction in Social Analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1984. The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1989. A Reply to My Critics. In Social Theory of Modern Societies: Anthony Giddens and His Critics, ed. David Held and John B. Thompson, 249–300. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1990. The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1991. Modernity and Self-Identity. Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1992. The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love, and Eroticism in Modern Societies. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1994. Beyond Left and Right: the Future of Radical Politics. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1995. Konsequenzen der Moderne. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2007. Europe in the Global Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giddens, Anthony, Patrick Diamond, and Roger Liddle, eds. 2006. Global Europe, Social Europe. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Givens, Terri E., and Rhonda Evans Case. 2014. Legislating Equality. The Politics of Antidiscrimination Policy in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, Barney G., and Anselm Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Granovetter, Mark. 1985. Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology 91 (3): 481–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, Justin. 2007. Interest representation in the European Union. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haas, Peter M. 1992. Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination. International Organization 46 (1): 1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, Peter A., and Rosemary C.R. Taylor. 1996. Political Science and the Three Institutionalisms. Political Studies 44 (5): 936–957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hantrais, Linda, ed. 2000. Gendered Policies in Europe: Reconciling Employment and Family Life. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2003. Social Policy in the European Union. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkesworth, Mary. 2010. Policy Discourse as Sanctioned Ignorance: Theorizing the Erasure of Feminist Knowledge. Critical Policy Studies 3 (3–4): 268–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helfferich, Barbara, and Felix Kolb. 2001. Multilevel Action Coordination in European Contentious Politics - the Case of the European Women’s Lobby. In Contentious Europeans, ed. Douglas R. Imig and Sidney G. Tarrow. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Héritier, Adrienne. 2003. New Modes of Governance in Europe: Increasing Political Capacity and Policy Effectiveness. In The State of the European Union, 6: Law, Politics, and Society in Europe, ed. Tanja A. Börzel and Rachel A. Cichowski, 105–126. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hix, Simon. 2005. The Political System of the European Union. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, Liesbet. 2002. The European Commission and the Integration of Europe: Images of Governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. Several Roads Lead to International Norms, But Few Via International Socialization: A Case Study of the European Commission. International Organization 59 (4): 861–898.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoskyns, Catherine. 1996. Integrating Gender: Women, Law and Politics in the European Union. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2000. A Study of Four Action Programmes on Equal Opportunities. In Gender Policies in the European Union, ed. Maria Grazia Rossilli, 43–59. New York, NY: Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Imig, Douglas R., and Sidney G. Tarrow, eds. 2001. Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Immergut, Ellen. 1998. The Theoretical Core of the New Institutionalism. Politics and Society 26 (1): 5–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacquot, Sophie. 2010. The Paradox of Gender Mainstreaming: Unanticipated Effects of New Modes of Governance in the Gender Equality Domain. West European Politics 33 (1): 118–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2015. Transformations in EU Gender Equality. From Emergence to Dismantling. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Jenson, Jane. 2008. Writing Women Out, Folding Gender In. Social Politics 15 (2): 131–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jónasdóttir, Anna G., and Kathleen B. Jones, eds. 2009. The Political Interests of Gender Revisited: Redoing Theory and Research with a Feminist Face. Tokyo; New York; Paris: United Nations University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, Charles O. 1984. An Introduction to the Study of Public Policy. Boston: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahlert, Heike. 2005. “Das Private ist Politisch!” Die Entgrenzung des Politischen im Kontext von Anthony Giddens’ Strukturierungstheorie. In Forschungsfeld Politik. Geschlechtskategoriale Einführung in die Sozialwissenschaften, ed. Cilja Harders, Heike Kahlert, and Delia Schindler, 147–173. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kantola, Johanna. 2006. Feminists Theorize the State. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2010. Gender and the European Union. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kantola, Johanna, and Kevät Nousiainen. 2012. European Union as an Initiator of New European Anti-discrimination Regime. In Institutionalising Intersectionality? The Changing Nature of European Equality Regimes, ed. Andrea Krizsan, Hege Skjeie, and Judith Squires. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karamessini, Maria, and Jill Rubery, eds. 2013. Women and Austerity: The Economic Crisis and the Future for Gender Equality. London; New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, Meryl. 2007. Gender, Institutions and Power: A Critical Review. Politics 27 (2): 91–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kingdon, John W. 1984. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klatzer, Elisabeth, and Christina Schlager. 2014. Gender and Macroeconomics: Economic Governance in the European Union – Reconfiguration of Gendered Power Structures and Erosion of Gender Equality. In The SAGE Handbook auf Feminist Theory, ed. Mary Evans, Clare Hemmings, Marsha Henry, Hazel Johnstone, Sumi Madhok, Ania Plomien, and Sadie Wearing, 483–499. London: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, Uta. 2006. Geschlechterverhältnisse und Gleichstellungspolitik in der Europäischen Union. Akteure - Themen - Ergebnisse. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Knoke, David. 1990. Networks of Political Action: Toward Theory Construction. Social Forces 68 (4): 1041–1063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolinsky, Eva, and Hildegard Maria Nickel. 2003. Introduction: Reinventing Gender after the GDR. In Reinventing Gender: Women in Eastern Germany Since Unification, ed. Eva Kolinsky and Hildegard Maria Nickel, 1–27. London; Portland, OR: Cass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreisky, Eva, Sabine Lang, and Birgit Sauer, eds. 2001. EU. Geschlecht. Staat. Wien: WUV.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krizsan, Andrea, Judith Squires, and Hege Skjeie, eds. 2012. Institutionalizing Intersectionality. The Changing Nature of European Equality Regimes. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krook, Mona Lena, and Fiona Mackay, eds. 2011. Gender, Politics and Institutions. Towards a Feminist Institutionalism. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamla, Jörn. 2003. Anthony Giddens. Frankfurt am Main: Campus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang, Sabine. 1997. The NGOization of Feminism. In Transitions, Environments, Translations: Feminisms in International Politics, ed. Joan Wallach Scott, Cora Kaplan, and Debra Keates, 101–120. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2009. Assessing Advocacy: Transnational Women’s Networks and Gender Mainstreaming in the European Union. Social Politics 16 (3): 327–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemke, Christiane. 2004. Frauen in guter Verfassung? Gleichstellungspolitik in der europäischen Union. Chance Europa—Chance für Frauen, 3. Frauenpolitische Fachtagung des Deutschen Beamtinnen Bund (dbb). Accessed June 29, 2017. http://www.dbb.de/fileadmin/pdfs/frauen/2012/dokumentation_fachtagung_3_europa.pdf

  • Lerner, Daniel, and Harold Lasswell. 1951. The Policy Sciences. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebert, Ulrike. 1999. Gender Politics in the European Union: The Return of the Public. European Societies 1 (2): 191–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2003. Gendering Europeanisation: Patterns and Dynamics. In Gendering Europeanisation, ed. Ulrike Liebert, 255–283. Bruxelles: PIE Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locher, Birgit, and Elisabeth Prügl. 2001. Feminism and Constructivism: World’s Apart or Sharing the Middle Ground? International Studies Quarterly 45: 111–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombardo, Emanuela. 2005. Integrating or Setting the Agenda? Gender Mainstreaming in the European Constitution-Making Process. Social Politics 12 (3): 412–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2016. Social Constructivism in European Integration Theories: Gender and Intersectionality Perspectives. In Gendering European Integration Theory. Engaging New Dialogues. Opladen, ed. Gabriele Abels and Heather MacRae, 123–146. Berlin & Toronto: Barbara Budrich Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombardo, Emanuela, and Maxime Forest, eds. 2012. The Europeanization of Gender Equality Policies. A Discursive-Sociological Approach. Houndsmill, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombardo, Emanuela, and Petra Meier. 2008. Framing Gender Equality in the European Union Discourse. Social Politics 15 (1): 101–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lombardo, Emanuela, Petra Meier, and Mieke Verloo, eds. 2009. The Discursive Politics of Gender Equality: Stretching, Bending and Policymaking. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2010.Discursive Dynamics in Gender Equality Politics: What about ‘Feminist Taboos’? European Journal of Women’s Studies 17 (2): 105–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013. Policy-Making. In The Oxford Handbook of Gender and Politics, ed. Georgina Waylen, Karen Celis, Johanna Kantola, and Laurel S. Weldon, 679–702. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombardo, Emanuela, and Mieke Verloo. 2009. Institutionalising Intersectionality in the European Union? Policy Developments and Contestations. International Feminist Journal of Politics 11 (4): S.478–S.495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loyal, Steven. 2003. The Sociology of Anthony Giddens. London: Pluto.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, Fiona, Meryl Kenny, and Louise Chappell. 2010. New Institutionalism Through a Gender Lens: Towards a Feminist Institutionalism? International Political Science Review 31 (5): 573–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, Catharine A. 1989. Toward a Feminist Theory of the State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • March, James G., and Johan P. Olsen. 1984. The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life. The American Political Science Review 78 (2): 734–749.

    Google Scholar 

  • March, James G., and Johann P. Olsen. 1989. Rediscovering Institutions. The Organizational Basis of Politics. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, Gary, and Doug McAdam. 1999. On the Relationship of Political Opportunities to the Form of Collective Action: The Case of the European Union. In Social Movements in a Globalizing World, ed. Donnatella Della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Dieter Rucht, 97–111. Chippenham: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, David, ed. 1998. Comparing Policy Networks. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, Barbara L. 1994. Engendering Modernity. Feminism, Social Theory and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, Barbara L., and Anne Witz, eds. 2004. Engendering the Social Feminist Encounters with Sociological Theory. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masselot, Annick. 2007. The State of Gender Equality Law in the European Union. European Law Journal 13 (2): 152–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazey, Sonia. 1998. The European Union and Women’s Rights: From the Europeanization of National Agendas to the Nationalization of a European Agenda. Journal of European Public Policy 5 (1): 131–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2001. Gender Mainstreaming in the EU: Principles and Practice. London: Kogan Page.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2012. Policy Entrepreneurship, Group Mobilisation and the Creation of a New Policy Domain: Women’s Rights and the European Union. In Constructing a Policy-Making State? Policy Dynamics in the European Union, ed. Jeremy Richardson, 125–144. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazey, Sonia, and Jeremy Richardson. 2006. The Commission and the Lobby. In The European Commission, ed. David Spence, 279–290. London: John Harper Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAdam, Doug, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. 1996. Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCulloch, Gary. 2004. Documentary Research in Education, History and the Social Sciences. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mérand, Frédéric. 2011. EU Policies. In Sociology of the European Union, ed. Adrien Favell and Virginie Guiraudon, 172–192. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merton, Robert K. 1957. The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. In Social Theory and Social Structure, ed. K. Merton, 2nd ed., 475–490. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montoya, Celeste. 2008. The European Union, Capacity Building, and Transnational Networks: Combating Violence Against Women Through the Daphne Program. International Organization 62 (1): 359–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2009. International Initiative and Domestic Reforms: European Union Efforts to Combat Violence Against Women. Politics & Gender 5 (3): 325–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mósesdóttir, Magnussen. 2003. Moving Europe Towards the Dual Breadwinner Model. Five Years of Experience of the Luxembourg Employment Strategy. Brussels: ETUI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murgatroyd, Linda. 1989. Only half the story: Some blinkering Effects of ‘Malestream’ Sociology. In Social Theory of Modern Societies, Anthony Giddens and his Critics, ed. David Held and John B. Thompson, 147–167. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ortmann, Günther. 2008. Organisation und Welterschließung. Dekonstruktionen. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostner, Ilona. 1995. Arm ohne Ehemann? Sozialpolitische Regulierung von Lebenschancen für Frauen im internationalen Vergleich. Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, Beilage zur Wochenzeitung Das Parlament B 36–37 (95): 3–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostner, Ilona, and Jane Lewis. 1998. Geschlechterpolitik zwischen europäischer und nationalstaatlicher Regelung. In Standort Europa: sozialpolitik zwischen nationalstaat und Europäischer integration, ed. Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson, 196–239. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perreira, Maria do Mar. 2012. ‘Feminist Theory is Proper Knowledge, But…’: The Status of Feminist Scholarship in the Academy. Feminist Theory 13: 283–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, B. Guy. 1999. Institutional Theory in Political Science. The New Institutionalism. London: Pinter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierson, Paul, and Theda Skocpol. 2002. Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science. In Political Science: State of the Discipline, ed. Ira Katznelson and Helen V. Milner, 693–721. New York: W.W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollack, Mark A., and Hafner-Burton, Emilie. 2000. Mainstreaming Gender in the European Union. Harvard Jean Monnet Working Paper. 2/, 2000. Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, Walter W., and Paul J. DiMaggio, eds. 1991. The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prudovska, Tetyana, and Myra Max Ferree. 2004. Global Activism in “Virtual Space”: The European Women’s Lobby in the Network of Transnational Women’s NGOs on the Web. Social Politics 11 (1): 117–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rai, Shirin. 2003. Mainstreaming Gender, Democratizing the State: Institutional Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rees, Teresa L. 1998. Mainstreaming Equality in the European Union: Education Training and Labour Market Policies. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rolandsen Agustín, Lise. 2013. Gender Equality, Intersectionality and Diversity in Europe. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rönnblom, Malin. 2005. Letting Women In? Gender Mainstreaming in Regional Policies. NORA 13 (3): 164–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossilli, Mariagrazia. 1997. The European Community’s Policy on the Equality of Women: From the Treaty of Rome to the Present. European Journal of Women’s Studies European Journal of Women’s Studies 4 (1): 63–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, Silke, ed. 2008. Gender Politics in the Expanding European Union: Mobilization, Inclusion, Exclusion. Oxford; New York: Berghahn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rozbicka, Patrycja. 2013. Advocacy Coalitions: Influencing the Policy Process in the EU. Journal of European Public Policy 20 (6): 838–853.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubery, Jill. 2002. Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Equality in the EU: The Impact of the EU Employment Strategy. Industrial Relations Journal 33 (5): 500–522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rust, Ursula. 2005. Gleichstellung von Mann und Frau. In Die Zukunft der sozialen Dienste vor der Europäischen Herausforderung, ed. Christine Linzbach, Uwe Lübking, Stephanie Scholz, and Bernd Schulte, 133–151. Baden-Baden: Nomos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sabatier, Paul A. 1998. The Advocacy Coalition Framework: Revisions and Relevance for Europe. Journal of European Public Policy 5 (1): 98–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———., ed. 1999. Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sabatier, Paul A., and Hank C. Jenkins-Smith, eds. 1993. Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sainsbury, Diane. 1996. Gender, Equality, and Welfare States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Saurugger, Sabine. 2014. Theoretical Approaches to European Integration. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Verena. 2001. Gender Mainstreaming als Leitbild für Geschlechtergerechtigkeit in Organisationsstrukturen. Zeitschrift für Frauenforschung und Geschlechterstudien 1: 45–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. Gender Mainstreaming - an Innovation in Europe? The Institutionalisation of Gender Mainstreaming in the European Commission. Opladen: Barbara Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Vivien A. 2008. Discursive Institutionalism: The Explanatory Power of Ideas and Discourse. Annual Review of Political Science 11: 303–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitter, Phillipe C. 1996. Examining the Present Euro-Polity With the Help of Past Theories. In Governance in the European Union, ed. Fritz W. Scharpf, Gary Marks, Phillipe C. Schmitter, and Wolfgang Streeck, 1–14. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunter-Kleemann, Susanne. 1992. Geschlechterdifferenz in der politischen Debatte zur Europäischen Union. PROKLA 23 (23): 451–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1994. Das Demokratiedefizit der Europäischen Union und die Frauenpolitik. In Das unsichtbare Geschlecht der Europa: der europäische Einigungsprozess aus feministischer Sicht, ed. Elke Biester, 20–38. Frankfurt am Main; New York: Campus.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1999. Europäische Geschlechterpolitik - tauglich für das 3. Jahrtausend. In Es rettet uns kein höh'res Wesen, ed. Brigitte Stols-Willig and Mechthild Veil, 138–167. Hamburg: VSA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, Jo. 2005. Mainstreaming Equality and Diversity in European Union Law and Policy. Current Legal Problems 58: 255–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepsle, Kenneth A. 2006. Rational Choice Institutionalism. In Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions, ed. Sarah A. Binder, R.A.W. Rhodes, and Bert A. Rockman, 23–39. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Steve. 2001. Social Constructivism and European Studies. In The Social Construction of Europe, ed. Thomas Christiansen, Knud Erik Jørgensen, and Antje Wiener, 189–198. London: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Mark, and Paola Villa. 2010. The Ever-Declining Role of Gender Equality in the European Employment Strategy. Industrial Relations Journal 41 (6): 526–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Squires, Judith. 1999. Re-thinking the Boundaries of Political Representation. In New Agendas for Women, ed. Sylvia Walby, 169–189. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. Is Mainstreaming Transformative? Theorizing Mainstreaming in the Context of Diversity and Deliberation. Social Politics 12 (3): 366–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staudt, Kathleen, and Jane Jacquette. 1988. Women’s Programs, Bureaucratic Resistance and Feminist Organisation. In Women, Power and Policy: Towards the Year 2000, ed. Ellen Boneparth and Emily Stoper. New York: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiegler, Barbara. 2000. Wie Gender in den Mainstream kommt: Konzepte, Argumente und Praxisbeispiele zur EU-Strategie des Gender-Mainstreaming. Bonn: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stratigaki, Maria. 2004. The Cooptation of Gender Concepts in EU policies: The Case of Reconciliation of Work and Family. Social Politics 11 (1): 30–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. Gender Mainstreaming vs Positive Action: An On-going Conflict in EU Gender Equality Policy. European Journal of Women’s Studies 12 (2): 165–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thelen, Kathleen, and Sven Steinmo. 1992. Institutionalism in Comparative Politics. In Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis, ed. Kathleen Thelen, Sven Steinmo, and Frank Longstreth, 1–32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tholoniat, Luc. 2010. The Career of the Open Method of Coordination: Lessons from a “Soft” EU Instrument. West European Politics 33 (1): 93–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, John B. 1990. Studies in the Theory of Ideology. Cambridge: Cambridge Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsoukalis, Loukas. 1997. The New European Economy Revisited. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, Kenneth H. 1998. Anthony Giddens and Modern Social Theory. London: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Vleuten, Anna. 2007. The Price of Gender Equality: Member States and Governance in the European Union. Aldershot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2012. Gendering the Institutions and Actors of the EU. In Gendering the European Union: New Approaches to Old Democratic Deficits, ed. Gabriele Abels and Joyce Marie Mushaben, 41–62. Houndmills, Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Vleuten, Anna, Anouka van Eerdewijk, and Conny Roggeband, eds. 2014. Gender Equality Norms in Regional Governance: Transnational Dynamics in Europe, South America and Southern Africa. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verloo, Mieke. 2005. Displacement and Empowerment: Reflections on the Concept and Practice of the Council of Europe Approach to Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Equality. Social Politics 12 (3): 344–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———., ed. 2007. Multiple Meanings of Gender Equality: A Critical Frame Analysis of Gender Policies in Europe. Budapest; New York: Central European University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vromen, Ariadne. 2010. Debating Methods: Rediscovering Qualitative Approaches. In Theory and Methods in Political Science, ed. David Marsh and Gerry Stoker, 249–266. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Walby, Sylvia. 1990. Theorizing Patriarchy. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2004. The European Union and Gender Equality: Emergent Varieties of Gender Regimes. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender State and Society 11 (1): 4–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2005. Gender Mainstreaming: Productive Tensions in Theory and Practice. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 12 (3): 321–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2009. Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modernities. Los Angeles: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, Peggy. 2000. Politics, Policy and Identity: EU Eastern Enlargement and East-West Differences. Journal of European Public Policy 7 (3): 369–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waylen, Georgina. 2007. Engendering Transitions: Women's Mobilization, Institutions and Gender Outcomes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Weingast, Barry R. 1996. Political Institutions: Rational Choice Perspectives. In A New Handbook of Political Science, ed. Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 167–190. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, Doris. 1998. Atypische Beschäftigung in Europa: Zur Diskrepanz von Marktrealität und Gesetzgebung der Europäischen Union. In Flexibles Europa: die Auswirkungen von Deregulierung und Flexibilisierung europäischer Arbeitsmärkte auf die Arbeits- und Lebensbedingungen von Frauen, ed. Doris Weiss, 25–60. Frankfurt am Main; New York: P. Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wobbe, Theresa, and Ingrid Biermann. 2009. Von Rom nach Amsterdam. Die Metamorphosen des Geschlechts in der Europäischen Union. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wöhl, Stefanie. 2008. Global Governance as Neo-Liberal Governmentality: Gender Mainstreaming in the European Employment Strategy. In Global Governance: Feminist Perspectives, ed. Shirin Rai and Georgina Waylen, 64–83. Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wolffensberger, Joan. 1991. Engendered Structure: Giddens and the Conceptualization of Gender. In The Gender of Power, ed. Kathy Davis, Monique Leijenaar, and Jantine Oldersma, 87–108. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, Alison E. 1999. Women Acting Rationally: Speaking the Language of Power to Gender Test the State. In Rationalisation, Organisation, Gender, ed. Monika Goldmann, 133–144. Sozialforschungsstelle Dortmund (sfs): Dortmund.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2001. Gender Mainstreaming in European Policy: Innovation or Deception? Discussion Paper. Berlin: WZB Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2004. Building Velvet Triangles: Gender and Informal Governance. In Informal Governance in the European Union, ed. Thomas Christiansen, 76–93. Cheltenham: Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2008. Too Late for Gender Mainstreaming? Taking Stock in Brussels. Journal of European Social Policy 18 (3): 289–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2012. From Equal Treatment to Gender Mainstreaming and Diversity Management. In Gendering the European Union: New Approaches to Old Democratic Deficits, ed. Gabriele Abels and Joyce Marie Mushaben, 85–103. Houndmills, Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zippel, Kathrin. 2004. Transnational Advocacy Networks and Policy Cycles in the European Union: The Case of Sexual Harassment. Social Politics 11 (1): 57–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ahrens, P. (2018). Introduction: EU Gender Equality Policy-Making. In: Actors, Institutions, and the Making of EU Gender Equality Programs . Gender and Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57060-4_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics