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The Female Side of War: The Experience and Memory of the Great War in Italian-Jewish Women’s Ego-Documents

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The Jewish Experience of the First World War

Abstract

Nattermann offers an original insight into Italian-Jewish women’s experience and memory of the First World War. The chapter deals with the gulf between the hopes most Jewish women pinned on Italy’s decision to enter the war alongside the Entente powers, and their experience of the eventual horror of the conflict they supported. Drawing on relevant ego-documents and contemporary journals, Nattermann focuses on several activists of the early women’s emancipation movement. The underlying contention is that the experience of antisemitism during the fascist period led to a delusive memorialization of the Great War as a moment of national unity and complete integration of the Jewish minority into Italian society.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    On Margherita Sarfatti, see Stefania Bartoloni (2014), ‘Margherita Sarfatti. Una intellettuale tra Nazione e Fascismo’, in Maria Teresa Mori et al., ed. Di generazione in generazione. Le Italiane dall’Unità ad Oggi (Rome, Viella), 207–220; Simona Urso (2003), Margherita Sarfatti dal mito del Dux al mito americano (Venice, Marsilio); and Karin Wieland (2004), Die Geliebte des Duce. Das Leben der Margherita Sarfatti und die Erfindung des Faschismus (Munich, C. Hanser).

  2. 2.

    See Monica Miniati (2008), Le ‘emancipate’. Le donne ebree in Italia nel XIX e XX secolo (Rome, Viella), 211–224.

  3. 3.

    Anna Errera (19 novembre, 1916), ‘L’Antica Fiamma’, Per il nostro soldato II, 24. On Anna Errera, see Achille Norsa (1975), ‘Tre donne che hanno onorato l’Ebraismo italiano: le sorelle Errera’, La Rassegna mensile di Israel XLI, 1–2, 42–55. Errera’s statement as well as all the following quotations from contemporary Italian journals and ego-documents have been translated into English by Ruth Nattermann.

  4. 4.

    ‘Tra le fiamme della guerra’, Cordelia 35, 20 (14 maggio 1916).

  5. 5.

    See Jean Bethke Elshtain (1987), Women and War (New York, Basic Books). Only recently, historians have become aware of the attitudes, experience, and participation of Italian women in the First World War. See Perry Willson (2010), ‘On the ‘Home Front’: World War One and Its Aftermath, 1915–20’, in idem, Women in Twentieth Century Italy (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), 43–60; Allison Scardino Belzer (2010), Women and the Great War. Femininity Under Fire in Italy (Basingstoke and New York, Palgrave Macmillan); Matteo Ermacora (2014), ‘Women Behind the Lines: The Friuli Region as a Case Study of Total Mobilization, 1915–1917’, in Christa Hämmerle, Oswald Überegger, and Birgitta Bader Zaar, eds. Gender and the First World War (Basingstoke and New York, Palgrave Macmillan), 16–35; Augusta Molinari (2014), Una patria per le donne. La mobilitazione femminile nella Grande Guerra (Bologna, Il Mulino); Dacia Maraini, ed. Donne nella Grande Guerra (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2014); and Emma Schiavon, Interventiste nella Grande Guerra. Assistenza, propaganda, lotta per i diritti a Milano e in Italia (1911–1919) (Milan, Le Monnier).

  6. 6.

    Anna Foa (1999), ‘Le donne nella storia degli ebrei in Italia’, in Claire E. Honess and Verina R. Jones, eds. Le donne delle minoranze: le ebree e le protestanti d’Italia (Turin, Claudiana Editrice), 11–29, here 11. On the widely neglected history of Jewish women in Italy, see the collection of essays Donne nella storia degli ebrei d’Italia, ed. (2007), Associazione Italiana per lo Studio del Giudaismo (Florence, La Giuntina).

  7. 7.

    On the conceptual trinity ‘Expectation, Experience, Memory’ with regard to the First World War, see Petra Ernst (2009), ‘Der Erste Weltkrieg in deutschsprachig-jüdischer Literatur und Publizistik in Österreich’, in Siegfried Mattl, ed. Krieg. Erinnerung. Geschichtswissenschaft (Wien, Köln and Weimar, Böhlau), 47–72, here 62–68.

  8. 8.

    Silvia Treves (1974), ‘Diario di una crocerossina fiorentina, 1917–1918’, Rassegna storica Toscana XX, 2, 233–278.

  9. 9.

    Laura Orvieto (2001), Storia di Angiolo e Laura, ed. Caterina Del Vivo (Florence, Leo S. Olschi); Amelia Rosselli (2001), Memorie, ed. Marina Calloni (Bologna, Il Mulino); and Clemente Ancona (1938), In memoria di Emilia Ancona Contini nel primo anniversario della morte (Ferrara, private publication). The author of this article expresses her sincerest thanks to Emilia’s and Clemente’s great-granddaughter Sara Ancona (Padua) for a copy of the commemoration book, as well as numerous pieces of information on Emilia Contini and her commitment in the First World War.

  10. 10.

    On the participation of Italian-Jewish men in the Great War, see the standard monograph by Felice Tedeschi (1921), Gli israeliti italiani nella guerra 1915–1918 (Turin, Ferruccio Servi), as well as the more recent studies by Mario Toscano (2003), ‘Gli ebrei italiani e la prima guerra mondiale (1915–1918): tra crisi religiosa e fremiti patriottici’, in idem, Ebraismo e antisemitismo in Italia. Dal 1848 alla guerra dei sei giorni (Milan, Franco Angeli), 110–122; idem (2003), ‘Ebrei ed ebraismo nell’Italia della grande guerra. Note su una inchiesta del Comitato delle comunità israelitiche italiane del maggio 1917’, in idem (2003), Ebraismo e antisemitismo in Italia. Dal 1848 alla guerra dei sei giorni (Milan, Franco Angeli), 123–154; and idem (2005), ‘Religione, patriottismo, sionismo: il rabbinato militare nell’Italia della Grande Guerra (1915–1918)’, Zakhor 8, 77–133.

  11. 11.

    Miniati (2008), Le ‘emancipate’, 211–224.

  12. 12.

    Among the recent studies on Italian Jewry, especially in the period of emancipation, see Carlotta Ferrara degli Uberti (2011), Fare gli ebrei italiani. Autorappresentazione di una minoranza (1861–1918) (Bologna, Il Mulino); Elizabeth Schächter (2010), The Jews of Italy, 1848–1915. Between Tradition and Transformation (London, Vallentine Mitchell); David N. Myers, ed. (2008), Acculturation and Its Discontents: The Italian Jewish Experience Between Exclusion and Inclusion (Toronto, University of Toronto Press); and Ebrei e nazione. Comportamenti e rappresentazioni nell’età dell’emancipazione (storia e problemi contemporanei n. 45, a XX, maggio-agosto 2007).

  13. 13.

    On this argument, see also Tullia Catalan (2007), ‘Juden und Judentum in Italien von 1848 bis 1918’, in Gudrun Jäger and Liana Novelli-Glaab, eds. denn in Italian haben sich die Dinge anders abgespielt. Judentum und Antisemitismus im modernen Italian (Berlin, trafo), 71–86, here 72–73.

  14. 14.

    See Barbara Armani, and Guri Schwarz (2003), ‘Premessa’, Ebrei borghesi. Identità famigliare, solidarietà e affari nell’età dell’emancipazione, Quaderni storici 14, 621–651, here 627, 632.

  15. 15.

    Regarding the high percentage of Jewish women within the Italian women’s emancipation movement, see also Liana Novelli-Glaab (2007), ‘Zwischen Tradition und Moderne. Jüdinnen in Italien um 1900’, in …denn in Italien haben sich die Dinge anders abgespielt, 107–128, here 113. On the UFN, see Annarita Buttafuoco (1986), ‘Solidarietà, Emancipazionismo, Cooperazione. Dall’Associazione Generale delle Operaie all’Unione Femminile Nazionale’, in Fabio Fabbri, ed. L’Audacia insolente. La cooperazione femminile 1886–1986 (Venice, Marsilio), 79–110; Fabio D’Amico (2010), ‘Per l’elevazione materiale e morale della donna e del genere umano. L’Unione Femminile Nazionale di Milano dall’impegno sociale allo scioglimento (1908–1939)’ (Tesi di laurea, Università Statale di Milano); and Fiorella Imprenti (2012), Alle origini dell’Unione Feminile. Idee, progetti e reti internazionali all’inizio del Novecento (Milan, Biblion Edizioni).

  16. 16.

    On the CNDI, see Beatrice Pisa, ed. (2003), Cittadine d’Europa. Integrazione europea e associazioni femminili italiane (Milan, Franco Angeli); Elisabetta Solinas (2001), ‘Il Primo Congresso nazionale delle donne italiane. L’immagine dei quotidiani e dei periodici femminili’ (Tesi di laurea, Università Statale di Milano).

  17. 17.

    See Franca Pieroni Bortolotti (1985), La Donna, La Pace, L’Europa. L’Associazione internazionale delle donne dalle origini alla prima guerra mondiale (Milan, Franco Angeli). On Mazzini’s influence on the contemporary ideas of women’s emancipation, see Federica Falchi (2012), ‘Democracy and the rights of women in the thinking of Giuseppe Mazzini’, Modern Italy 17, 1, 15–30.

  18. 18.

    See Laura Guidi (2007), ‘Un nazionalismo declinato al femminile’, in Vivere la guerra: percorsi biografici e ruoli di genere tra Risorgimento e primo conflitto mondiale, ed. idem (Naples, Cliopress), 93–118, here 94.

  19. 19.

    Concetta Brigadeci (2001), Forme di resistenza al fascismo. L‘Unione femminile nazionale (Milan, UFN), 3; Guidi (2007), ‘Un nazionalismo declinato al femminile’, 94. On Ersilia Majno’s family background and her role in the UFN see Ruth Nattermann (2014), ‘Weibliche Emanzipation und jüdische Identität im vereinten Italien. Jüdinnen in der frühen italienischen Frauenbewegung’, in Gabriele B. Clemens and Jens Späth, eds. 150 Jahre Risorgimento – geeintes Italien? (Trier, Kliomedia), 127–146, here 142. On her biography, see Cinzia Demi (2013), Ersilia Bronzini Majno. Immaginario biografico di un’italiana tra ruolo pubblico e privato (Bologna, Pendragon); Fiorenza Taricone (1995), ‘Ersilia Bronzini in Majno’, in Rachele Farina, ed. Dizionario biografico delle donne lombarde (Milan, Baldini&Castoldi), 223–227; and Franca Pieroni Bortolotti (1974), Socialismo e questione femminile 1892–1922 (Milan, Mazzotta).

  20. 20.

    On Schiff and her ideological development, see Ruth Nattermann (2015), ‘Vom Pazifismus zum Interventionismus. Die italienische Frauenrechtlerin Paolina Schiff (1841–1926)’, in Franziska Dunkel, and Corinna Schneider, eds. Frauen und Frieden? Zuschreibungen – Kämpfe – Verhinderungen (Opladen and Toronto, Budrich), 73–85.

  21. 21.

    Marina Addis Saba (1993), Anna Kuliscioff. Vita privata e passione politica (Milan, Mondadori), 288.

  22. 22.

    See e.g. Natale di Guerra: Numero unico a favore dei feriti (19 dicembre 1915); Cordelia 35, 20 (14 maggio 1916), Per il nostro soldato, II, 24 (19 novembre 1916), 26 (17 dicembre 1916), III, 1 (14 gennaio 1917).

  23. 23.

    See Willson (2010), ‘On the Home Front’, 48.

  24. 24.

    In contrast to the majority of the Italian population, who were involved in agriculture, most Italian Jews were engaged in commerce, worked in offices, or practiced a profession. Their professional choices and fields of economic activity were frequently associated directly with their high educational level and their urban status. See Eitan Franco Sabatello (1989), ‘Trasformazioni economiche e sociali degli ebrei in Italia nel periodo dell’emancipazione’, in Italia Judaica: Gli ebrei nell’Italia unita 1870–1945. Atti del IV convegno internazionale (Siena, 12–16 giugno 1989) (Roma, Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali), 114–124. A countrywide survey commissioned by the central Committee of the Jewish communities in Italy in 1917, gave evidence for the fact that Italian Jews tended to neglect the rites, especially dietary rules, and that they rarely frequented the synagogue. At the same time, the results reflected a continuity of a profound ‘Jewish sentiment’ (sentimento ebraico). See Toscano (2003), ‘Gli ebrei italiani’, 295–297.

  25. 25.

    See Catalan (2007), ‘Juden und Judentum’, 82.

  26. 26.

    As early as 1848 the Jews in the kingdom of Sardinia-Piemont had been emancipated; eleven years later the Jews in Lombardy and Tuscany were granted civil rights. With the Italian unification in 1861, emancipation was extended to all the Jews residing in the newly founded state. Only in 1870, however, after the defeat of the Papal State, the Jews in Rome were granted civil rights as well.

  27. 27.

    See Toscano (2003), ‘Gli ebrei italiani’, 285, 289f., 292. On the ‘specifically Jewish aspects’ of the First World War in the German, Austria-Hungarian and French context, see Derek Penslar (2013), Jews and the Military. A History (Princeton, Princeton University Press), 170.

  28. 28.

    See Miniati (2008), Le ‘emancipate’, 224–229.

  29. 29.

    See for example Gina Lombroso Ferrero (1921), Cesare Lombroso. Storia della Vita e delle Opere (Bologna, Zanichelli Editore), 68–94; Orvieto (2001), Storia, 52; and Rosselli (2001), Memorie, 53.

  30. 30.

    On Amelia Rosselli, see Dolara Vieri (2012), ‘Amelia Rosselli Pincherle’, Quaderni del Circolo Rosselli 3; Giovanna Amato (2012), ‘Una donna nella storia. Vita e letteratura di Amelia Pincherle Rosselli’, Quaderni del Circolo Rosselli 1.

  31. 31.

    The notion of Italy as a ‘safe harbor’ for Jews has had a long tradition; see Stanislao Pugliese (2002), ‘Israel in Italy, Wrestling with the Lord in the Land of Divine Dew’ in idem, ed. (2002) The Most Ancient of Minorities: The Jews of Italy (Westport, CT, Greenwood Press), 1–10, here 1. On irredentist positions among Italian-Jewish activists, see Ruth Nattermann (2016), ‘Zwischen Pazifismus, Irredentismus und nationaler Euphorie. Italienische Jüdinnen und der Erste Weltkrieg’, in Petra Ernst and Eleonore Lappin-Eppel, eds. Jüdische Publizistik und Literatur im Zeichen des Ersten Weltkriegs (Innsbruck, Studienverlag).

  32. 32.

    See Marina Calloni (2001), ‘Introduzione’, in Rosselli, ed. Memorie, 7–26, here 17.

  33. 33.

    Rosselli (2001), Memorie, 139.

  34. 34.

    Angiolo founded the Florentine literary journal ‘Il Marzocco’ in 1896 and became its first director. Later on, Laura Orvieto wrote for ‘Il Marzocco’ as well. On her biography and opus, see in particular ‘Laura Orvieto. La voglia di raccontare le ‘Storie del Mondo’’, Antologia Vieusseux 18:53–54 (2012); Ruth Nattermann (2015), ‘The Italian-Jewish Writer Laura Orvieto (1876–1955) Between Intellectual Independence and Social Exclusion’, in Tullia Catalan and Cristiana Facchini, eds. Portrait of Italian Jewish Life (1800s–1930s), Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History. Journal of Fondazione CDEC, 8, URL http://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/focus.php?id=368; Claudia Gori (2004), ‘Laura Orvieto: un’intellettuale del Novecento’, Genesis III, 2, 183–203; Giuliano Treves Artom (1983), ‘Ricordando Laura Orvieto’, in Caterina Del Vivo, and Marco Assirelli, eds. ‘Il Marzocco’. Carteggi e cronache fra Ottocento e Avanguardie, 1887–1913 (Florence, Arti Grafiche C. Mori); and Carla Poesio (1971), Laura Orvieto (Florence, Le Monnier).

  35. 35.

    Amelia to Carlo Rosselli, August 3, 1914, Archivio dell’Istituto della Resistenza in Toscana, Fondo Maria Rosselli: Lettere di Amelia Rosselli.

  36. 36.

    Amelia Rosselli to Laura Orvieto, August 21, 1914, Gabinetto G.P. Vieusseux, Firenze, Archivio Contemporaneo ‘Alessandro Bonsanti’ (in the following: ACGV), Fondo Laura Orvieto, F.Or.1.2059.

  37. 37.

    Ibid.

  38. 38.

    Amelia Rosselli to Laura Orvieto, September 21, 1915, ACGV, Fondo Laura Orvieto, F.Or. 1.2059.

  39. 39.

    His colonel had actually suggested Aldo for the golden medal for bravery. At the end of the war, he still remembered how courageous Aldo had been in action while defending the Italian positions; see Leo Valiani (1997), ‘Introduzione’, in Zeffiro Ciuffoletti, ed. I Rosselli. Epistolario familiare 1914–1937 (Milan, Mondadori), VII–XXVII, here X.

  40. 40.

    Rosselli (2001), Memorie, 151–155.

  41. 41.

    Amelia Rosselli to Laura Orvieto, July 31, s.a. (1919?), ACGV, Fondo Laura Orvieto, F.Or. 1.2059.

  42. 42.

    In this context, see also Amato (2012), ‘Una donna nella storia’, 112.

  43. 43.

    Amelia Rosselli to Laura Orvieto, s.d. (1919?), ACGV, Fondo Laura Orvieto, F.Or. 1.2059.

  44. 44.

    A long excerpt has been published in Silvia Treves (1974), ‘Diario di una crocerossina fiorentina, 1917–1918’, Rassegna storica Toscana XX, 2, 233–278. Monica Miniati has quoted some central passages of the diaries in her work on Jewish women in Italy, see Miniati (2008), Le emancipate, 217; so does Stefania Bartoloni (2003) in her study about Italian nurses in the First World War: Italiane alla Guerra. L’assistenza ai feriti 1915–1918 (Venice, Marsilio), see especially 191, 217.

  45. 45.

    Silvia Treves, Diari inediti, September 1916, in Miniati (2008), Le emancipate, 217.

  46. 46.

    See Orvieto (2001), Storia, 117.

  47. 47.

    Ada Cagli Della Pergola was born in Ancona and had studied with the writer Eugenia Levi at the Magistero Superiore in Florence. She wrote for the press of the Italian women’s movement as well as literature for children, mostly under the nom de plume ‘Fiducia’.

  48. 48.

    Ada Cagli della Pergola (‘Fiducia’), ‘Natale di guerra’, in Attività femminile sociale IV, 12 (December 1916). On this article, see also Miniati (2008), Le emancipate, 224.

  49. 49.

    On anti-catholic tendencies among Jewish members of the Italian women’s movement, see Nattermann (2014), ‘Weibliche Emanzipation’, 142.

  50. 50.

    Fanny Luzzatto to Ersilia Majno, September 15, 1901, Archivio Unione Femminile Nazionale, Milan, Fondo Ersilia Majno, Cartella 12, fasc. 1. Fanny was the sister of the prominent doctor Oscar Luzzatto and the law professor Fabio Luzzatto (1870–1954). In 1931, the latter was among only twelve Italian university professors who refused to sign the oath of allegiance to Fascism; see Giorgio Boatti (2001), Prefirerei di no. Le storie dei dodici professori che si opposero a Mussolini (Turin, Einaudi).

  51. 51.

    On the increasing influence of Catholicism at the beginning of the twentieth century in Italy, see Oliver Janz (2004), ‘Konflikt, Koexistenz und Symbiose: Nationale und religiöse Symbolik in Italien vom Risorgimento bis zum Faschismus’, in Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Dieter Langewiesche, eds. Nation und Religion in Europa. Mehrkonfessionelle Gesellschaften im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt a.M., Campus Verlag), 231–252, here 243.

  52. 52.

    On the origins and the development of the UDC, see Liviana Gazzetta (2006), ‘‘Fede e fortezza’. Il movimento cattolico femminile tra ortodossia ed eterodossia’, in Nadia Maria Filippini, ed. Donne sulla Scena Pubblica. Società e politica in Veneto tra Sette e Ottocento (Milan, Franco Angeli), 218–265.

  53. 53.

    Elena Da Persico (1925), Moda e carattere femminile (Turin, L.I.C.E. Berruti & C.).

  54. 54.

    On the long-time neglect and forgetting of the Jewish experience and memory of the First World War especially in Austria, see Ernst (2009), ‘Der Erste Weltkrieg’, 57.

  55. 55.

    On the memory of the Great War and the development of the various forms of its memory, especially in France and Great Britain, see Jay Winter (2006), Remembering War. The Great War between Memory and History in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, Yale University Press). For the German-Jewish context in particular see Tim Grady (2012), The German-Jewish Soldiers of the First World War in History and Memory (Liverpool, Liverpool University Press).

  56. 56.

    On the history and the origins of Rosselli’s memoirs see the introduction by Marina Calloni, in Rosselli (2001), Memorie, 7–30, in particular 16.

  57. 57.

    See Caterina Del Vivo (2001), ‘Introduzione’, in Orvieto, ed. Storia, VII–XI, here VII.

  58. 58.

    See ‘Decreto del prefetto di Milano riguardo allo scioglimento dell’UFN’, Milano, Archivio UFN, Busta 1, fasc. 5. On women and women’s organizations in Fascist Italy see especially Victoria De Grazia (1992), Le donne nel regime fascista (Venice, Marsilio); Perry Willson (1993), The Clockwork Factory. Women and Work in Fascist Italy (Oxford, Clarendon Press). On Catholic women’s organizations during Fascism see Liviana Gazzetta (2011), Cattoliche durante il fascismo. Ordine sociale e organizzazioni femminili nelle Venezie (Rome, Viella).

  59. 59.

    On the antisemitic course of Fascist Italy and the Racial Laws of 1938, see especially Enzo Collotti (2004), Il fascismo e gli ebrei. Le leggi razziali in Italia (Rome and Bari, Laterza); Michele Sarfatti (2006), The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy. From Equality to Persecution (Madison, The University of Wisconsin Press); and idem (1994), Mussolini contro gli ebrei. Cronaca dell’elaborazione delle leggi del 1938 (Turin, S. Zamorani).

  60. 60.

    This concerns the second part of her memoirs, ‘A Firenze’, which deals to a considerable extent with Aldo and his death; Rosselli (2001), Memorie, 107–174.

  61. 61.

    See ibid., 146–155.

  62. 62.

    Ibid., 163.

  63. 63.

    See especially Sarfatti (2006), The Jews, 100–129.

  64. 64.

    Orvieto (2001), Storia, 126.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., 115.

  66. 66.

    Monica Miniati, too, mentions Emilia Contini Ancona among the founders of the day nursery ‘Cavour’. The group of altogether eleven Jewish initiators carried the costs for the institution by themselves; see Miniati (2008), Le emancipate, 216.

  67. 67.

    Ancona (1938), In memoria, 8.

  68. 68.

    Enzo Collotti, ‘La politica razziale del regime fascista’ (paper presented at the conference ‘L’invenzione del nemico. Sessantesimo anniversario della promulgazione delle leggi razziali’, organized by the Istituto Nazionale per la Storia del Movimento di Liberazione in Italia and the Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, December 3, 1998), 3.

  69. 69.

    Orvieto (2001), Storia, 119.

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  1. Bundeswehr University, Munich, Germany

    Ruth Nattermann

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  1. Department of History, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

    Edward Madigan

  2. Department of History, University of Sussex, Falmer, UK

    Gideon Reuveni

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Nattermann, R. (2019). The Female Side of War: The Experience and Memory of the Great War in Italian-Jewish Women’s Ego-Documents. In: Madigan, E., Reuveni, G. (eds) The Jewish Experience of the First World War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54896-2_11

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