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Case Study Part Three: Raising Consciousness—Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Armed Conflict

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Collective Consciousness and Gender

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Abstract

This chapter introduces the shadow of gender in the global community: sexual and gender-based violence in armed conflict. It analyses how the collective consciousness of the global community has evolved from pre-World War II to the present in response to sexual atrocities and conflict-related sexual violence.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    In applying Jungian theory to the ‘shadow’ elements of corporations, Ketola has examined the many and varied neurotic and borderline characteristics of companies, such as withdrawal, dependency, narcissism, and paranoia, and pinpointed their origins in psychological defences such as isolation, regression, omnipotent fantasies, and projection (Ketola, 2008, p. 200). She identifies the psychopathic characteristics of many large corporations—such as unconcern for others’ feelings, disregard for others’ safety, dishonesty and lying to one’s own advantage, inability to feel guilt, and unwillingness to observe the laws and norms of society (Ketola, 2008, p. 200). It is argued that these aspects of shadow are also evident in the global collective self.

  2. 2.

    International Conferences (The Hague), Hague Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and Its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 18 October 1907, site accessed 2 April 2012: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4374cae64.html.

  3. 3.

    This law is gender neutral and therefore applies to both female and male victims of SGBV committed during armed conflict (Report of the Special Rapporteur on Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices During Armed Conflict, 1998, para. 60).

  4. 4.

    See The Covenant of the League of Nations, 28 April 1919, site accessed 3 May 2012: http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp.

  5. 5.

    Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, opened for signature 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950).

  6. 6.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Arms Conflicts, opened for signature 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3 (entered into force 7 December 1979); Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Arms Conflicts, opened for signature 12 August 1977, 1125 UNTS 609 (entered into force 7 December 1978).

  7. 7.

    Article 4(2) states: ‘Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing, the following acts against the persons referred to in paragraph I are and shall remain prohibited at any time and in any place whatsoever:

    1. 1.

      violence to the life, health, and physical or mental well-being of persons, in particular murder as well as cruel treatment such as torture, mutilation, or any form of corporal punishment;

    2. 2.

      collective punishments;

    3. 3.

      taking of hostages;

    4. 4.

      acts of terrorism;

    5. 5.

      outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution, and any form or indecent assault;

    6. 6.

      slavery and the slave trade in all their forms;

    7. 7.

      pillage;

    8. 8.

      threats to commit any or the foregoing acts’ [emphasis added].

  8. 8.

    The position of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) at the Rome Conference in 1998 was that these categories of breaches could be interpreted to encompass rape and sexual abuse (Kittichaisaree, 2001).

  9. 9.

    Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, opened for signature 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 277 (entered into force 12 January 1951).

  10. 10.

    1465 UNTS 85.

  11. 11.

    Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict (1974) General Assembly Resolution 3318 (XXIX) of 14 December 1974.

  12. 12.

    The Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Case No. IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1, Judgment of 22 February 2001.

  13. 13.

    These resolutions contained the Statutes of the ICTY and the ICTR as annexes, which determined the Tribunals’ jurisdiction, organisational structure, and criminal procedure.

  14. 14.

    The Prosecutor v. Delacic et al., Case No. IT-96-21-T, Judgment of 16 November 1998.

  15. 15.

    The Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Case No. IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1, Judgment of 22 February 2001.

  16. 16.

    The Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1-I, Judgment of 7 May 1997.

  17. 17.

    The Prosecutor v. Furundzija, Case No. IT-95-17/1-T, Judgment of 10 December 1998.

  18. 18.

    The Prosecutor v. Kvocka et al., Case No. IT-98-30/1-T, Judgment of 2 November 2001.

  19. 19.

    The Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment of 2 Sept. 1998.

  20. 20.

    See, for example, The Prosecutor v. Musema, Case No. ICTR-96-13-A, Appeal Judgment of 16 Nov 2001; The Prosecutor v. Kamuhanda, Case No. ICTR-95-54A-T, Judgment of 22 Jan, 2004; The Prosecutor v. Nahimana, Case No. ICTR-99-52-T, Judgment and Sentence, 1079 of 3 Dec, 2003; The Prosecutor v. Kajelijeli, Case No. ICTR-98-44A-T, Judgment and Sentence of 1 Dec, 2003.

  21. 21.

    The Prosecutor v. Karemera (Karemera Amended Indictment), Case No. ICTR-98-44-I, Amended Indictment (Feb. 23, 2005).

  22. 22.

    The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998), 2187 UNTS 90, entered into force on 1 July 2002.

  23. 23.

    Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 15; The Prosecutor v. Jelisic, Case No. IT-95-10-A, Judgment of 5 July 2001.

  24. 24.

    As of February 2018, the ICC has 138 signatories and 123 states parties: Status List of the ICC, UNTS, 2018: https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XVIII-10&chapter=18&clang=_en.

  25. 25.

    The Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, ICC-01/05 -01/08, International Criminal Court (ICC), 22 November 2010.

  26. 26.

    The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, ICC-01/04-01/06, International Criminal Court (ICC), Judgment of 14 March 2012.

  27. 27.

    The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, ICC-01/04-01/07 OA 8, International Criminal Court (ICC), 25 September 2009.

  28. 28.

    The Prosecutor v. Musema, Case No. ICTR-96-13-T, Judgment and Sentence of 27 January 2000.

  29. 29.

    The Prosecutor v. Musema, Case No. ICTR-96-13-A, Appeal Judgment of 16 Nov 2001, paras. 193–194.

  30. 30.

    The Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Case No. IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1 A, Appeal Judgment of 12 June 2002.

  31. 31.

    Elements of Crimes, ICC Doc ICC-ASP/1/3, Article 7(1)(g), September 3–10, 2002.

  32. 32.

    The Prosecutor v. Semanza, Case No. ICTR-97-20-T, Judgment of 15 May 2003.

  33. 33.

    The Prosecutor v. Kajelijeli, Case No. ICTR-98-44A-T, Judgment and Sentence of 1 Dec. 2003.

  34. 34.

    The Prosecutor v. Kamuhanda, Case No. ICTR-99-54A-T, Judgment of 22 Jan. 2004.

  35. 35.

    The Prosecutor v. Muhimana, Case No. ICTR-95-1B-T, Judgment of 28 April 2005.

  36. 36.

    Prosecutor v. Gacumbitisi, Case No. ICTR-2001-64-A, Appeals Chamber Judgment of 7 July 2006; Prosecutor v. Gacumbitisi, Case No. ICTR-2001-64-T, Trial Chamber Judgment of 17 June 2004.

  37. 37.

    The Appeals Chamber stated: ‘As with every element of any offence, the Trial Chamber will consider all of the relevant and admissible evidence in determining whether, under the circumstances of the case, it is appropriate to conclude that non-consent is proven beyond reasonable doubt. But it is not necessary, as a legal matter, for the Prosecution to introduce evidence concerning the words or conduct of the victim or the victim’s relationship to the perpetrator. Nor need it introduce evidence of force. Rather, the Trial Chamber is free to infer non-consent from the background circumstances, such as an ongoing genocide campaign or the detention of the victim. Indeed, the Trial Chamber did so in this case. Knowledge of non-consent may be proven, for instance, if the Prosecution establishes beyond reasonable doubt that the accused was aware, or had reason to be aware, of the coercive circumstances that undermined the possibility of genuine consent’ (Prosecutor v. Gacumbitisi, Case No. ICTR-2001-64-A, Appeals Chamber Judgment of 7 July 2006, paras. 155–157).

  38. 38.

    International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Rules of Procedure and Evidence, adopted 11 February 1994: http://www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Rules_procedure_evidence/it032rev46e.pdf.

  39. 39.

    International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Rules of Procedure and Evidence, adopted 29 June 1995: http://unictr.org/Portals/0/English/Legal/ROP/100209.pdf.

  40. 40.

    Rule 63(4) of the International Criminal Court Rules of Procedure and Evidence similarly provides: ‘a Chamber shall not impose a legal requirement that corroboration is required in order to prove any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court, in particular, crimes of sexual violence.’

  41. 41.

    International Criminal Court Rules of Procedure and Evidence, adopted 9 September 2002, available at: http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/F1E0AC1C-A3F3-4A3C-B9A7-B3E8B115E886/140164/Rules_of_procedure_and_Evidence_English.pdf.

  42. 42.

    Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna on 25 June 1993, A/CONF.157/23.

  43. 43.

    Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, A/RES/48/104, adopted 20 December 1993.

  44. 44.

    Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Resolution 1994/45: Question of Integrating the Rights of Women into the Human Rights Mechanisms of the United Nations and the Elimination of Violence Against Women.

  45. 45.

    Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Final report submitted by Ms. Gay J. McDougall, Special Rapporteur: Systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, 22 June 1998, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13.

  46. 46.

    Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Fourth World Conference on Women, 15 September 1995, A/CONF.177/20 (1995) and A/CONF.177/20/Add.1 (1995).

  47. 47.

    According to paragraph 135 of the Beijing Platform for Action,

    While entire communities suffer the consequences of armed conflict and terrorism, women and girls are particularly affected because of their status in society and their sex. Parties to the conflict often rape women with impunity sometimes using systematic rape as a tactic of war and terrorism. The impact of violence against women and violations of the human rights of women in such situations is experienced by women of all ages, who…are victims of acts of murder, terrorism, torture, involuntary disappearance, sexual slavery, rape, sexual abuse and forced pregnancy in situations of armed conflict, especially as a result of policies of ethnic cleansing and other new and emerging forms of violence. [emphasis added]

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  1. Centre for Social Impact, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    Alexandra Walker

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Walker, A. (2018). Case Study Part Three: Raising Consciousness—Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Armed Conflict. In: Collective Consciousness and Gender. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54414-8_11

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