Abstract
How should historians think about people’s attitudes—positive and negative—to modernity? This chapter provides an answer that avoids essentialising some people as ‘modern’ and others as backward or atavistic, and instead concentrates on what it meant to have a modern identity. Drawing on ideas from colonial history, it argues that we need to understand the language and practice of modern as a ‘claims-making device’ (Lynn Thomas). In doing so, people like mountaineers and ramblers who vociferously criticised urban, industrial society emerge not as anti-modern individuals, but self-consciously modern ones, who went into nature in order to be more modern.
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Notes
- 1.
Oscar Eckenstein, ‘Über Steigeisentechnik’, Österreichische Alpenzeitung: Organ des Österreichischen Alpenklubs [ÖAZ] XXX:764 (1908), pp. 136–41; Oscar Eckenstein, ‘Über Steigeisentechnik’, ÖAZ XXXI:787 (1909), pp. 127–34.
- 2.
Eckenstein, ‘Steigeisentechnik (I)’, p. 136.
- 3.
See T. S. Blakeney and D. F. O. Danger, ‘Oscar Eckenstein, 1859–1921’, Alpine Journal 65:300 (1960), pp. 62–79, with Richard Kaczynski, Perdurabo: The Life of Aleister Crowley—The Definitive Biography of the Founder of Modern Magick, Rev. ed. (Berkeley, CA, 2010), pp. 42–44; Oscar Eckenstein, ‘Steigeisen-Kursus’, ÖAZ XXXIV:865 (1912), p. 300.
- 4.
Eckenstein was friends with well-known mountaineers such as August Lorria, and the Austrians Eugen Guido Lammer, and Karl Blodig. He is said to have introduced the enfant terrible of German mountaineering, Paul Preuß, to the Western Alps in 1912, was a member of the ‘Austria’ Sektion of the deutsche and oesterreichische Alpenverein, and a well-known figure at the Manchester-dominated gatherings of mountaineers in Wasdale Head at the turn of the century. See Eugen Guido Lammer, Jungborn: Bergfahrten und Höhenged anken eines einsamen Pfadsuchers (Munich, 1935), p. 116; Karl Blodig, ‘Die Erste Ersteingung des Mont Blanc vom Col Emile Rey’, ÖAZ XXXIV:849 (1912), pp. 1–7 (p. 2); Blakeney and Danger, ‘Eckenstein’, pp. 75–77. Eckenstein is identifiable as the ‘Wanderer’ in Lehmann J. Oppenheimer, Heart of Lakeland (London, 1908), pp. 181–96.
- 5.
Jonathan Westaway, ‘The German Community in Manchester, Middle-Class Culture and the Development of Mountaineering in Britain, c. 1850–1914’, English Historical Review 508 (2009), pp. 571–604 (pp. 593–94); Oscar Eckenstein, ‘Knots with the Lay’, Climbers’ Club Journal [CCJ] XI:44 (1909), pp. 144–47; Oscar Eckenstein, ‘Claws and Ice-Craft’, CCJ NS I:1 (1912), pp. 32–48.
- 6.
Peter Hansen, Summits of Modern Man: Mountaineering after the Enlightenment (London, 2013).
- 7.
See Alan McNee, The New Mountaineer in Late Victorian Britain: Materiality, Modernity, and the Haptic Sublime (London, 2016), pp. 150–53.
- 8.
The literature on modernity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is vast. For studies that draw out a sense of crisis in this period, see Gal Gerson, Margins of Disorder: New Liberalism and the Crisis of European Consciousness (New York, 2004); Andrew Lees, Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and American Thought, 1820–1940 (Manchester, 1985), pp. 106–88; Joachim Radkau, Das Zeitalter der Nervosität: Deutschland zwischen Bismarck and Hitler (Munich, 1998); Kevin Repp, Reformers, Critics and the Paths of German Modernity: Anti-Politics and the Search for Alternatives, 1890–1914 (Harvard, 2000), pp. 1–18; Martin Daunton and Bernhard Rieger (eds.), Meanings of Modernity: Britain from the Late-Victorian Era to World War II (Oxford, 2001).
- 9.
Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (London, 2005), pp. 113–49.
- 10.
Rudy Koshar, Germany’s Transient Pasts: Preservation and National Memory in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill, 1998), p. 44.
- 11.
See Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Managing the Body: Beauty, Health and Fitness in Britain, 1880–1939 (Oxford, 2010), pp. 17–61; Michael Hau, The Cult of Health and Beauty in Germany: A Social History, 1890–1930 (London, 2003), pp. 1–124; Thomas Rohkrämer, Eine Andere Moderne? Zivilisationskritik, Natur und Technik in Deutschland, 1880–1933 (Paderborn, 1999), pp. 117–211; Bernd Wedemeyer-Kolwe, “Der Neue Mensch” Körperkultur im Kaiserreich und in der Weimar Republik (Würzburg, 2004). These movements were not identical, but shared many impetuses and emerged from transnational entanglements of reformist physical cultures as well as social and cultural criticism. See Thomas Rohkrämer, ‘Gab es eine “Lebensreformbewegung” in England?’, in Marc Cluet and Catherine Repussard (eds.), ‘Lebensreform’: Die soziale Dynamik der politischen Ohnmacht/La dynamique sociale de l’impuissance politique (Tübingen, 2013), pp. 319–36.
- 12.
Eckenstein, ‘Steigeisentechnik (II)’, pp. 131–32.
- 13.
Eckenstein, ‘Steigeisentechnik (II)’, p. 132. Despite the criticism, Eckenstein’s concept of a ‘normal’ walk was derived from European assumptions about posture and gait that were not shared in the rest of the world, but which themselves had a significant relationship with the culture of being ‘modern’. See Tim Ingold, Being Alive: Essays on Movement, Knowledge and Description (London, 2011), pp. 33–50.
- 14.
Rohkrämer, Andere Moderne; Thomas Rohkrämer, ‘Antimodernism, Reactionary Modernism, and National Socialism: Technocratic Tendencies in Germany, 1890–1945’, Contemporary European History 1 (1999), pp. 29–50. See, however, Thomas Rohkrämer, ‘Kulturkritik als Schlüssel zum Verständnis viktorianischer Gesellschaftskritik’, Zeitschrift für Kulturphilosophie 9 (2007), pp. 111–19.
- 15.
David Blackbourn, ‘“As Dependent on Each Other as Man and Wife”: Cultural Contacts and Transfers’, in Dominik Geppert and Robert Gewarth (eds.), Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain: Essays on Cultural Affinity (Oxford, 2008), pp. 15–37 (p. 17); Jürgen Kocka, ‘Asymmetrical Historical Comparison: The Case of the German Sonderweg’, History and Theory 1 (1999), pp. 40–50; Peter Mandler, ‘Against “Englishness”: English Culture and the Limits to Rural Nostalgia, 1850–1940’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 7 (1997), pp. 155–75; Joachim Radkau, ‘Germany as a Focus of European “Particularities” in Environmental History’, in Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller (eds.), Germany’s Nature: Cultural Landscapes and Environmental History (New Brunswick, 2005), pp. 17–32.
- 16.
George Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York, 1964); Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology (London, 1961); Martin Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 98–123. See also Jeremy Burchardt, Paradise Lost: Rural Idyll and Social Change in England since 1800 (London, 2002), pp. 89–120; Robert Colls and Phillip Dodd (eds.), Englishness: Politics and Culture 1880–1920 (London, 1986); Robert Colls, Identity of England (Oxford, 2002), pp. 204–25; Carl Schorske, Wien: Geist und Gesellschaft im Fin de Siècle (Frankfurt a.M., 1982); Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Das Deutsche Kaiserreich 1871–1918 (Göttingen, 1994 [1973]).
- 17.
David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley, The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth Century Germany (Oxford, 1984); Harold James, ‘The German Experience and the Myth of British Cultural Exceptionalism’, in Bruce Collins and Keith Robbins (eds.), British Culture and Economic Decline (London, 1990), pp. 91–128; Matthew Jefferies, Contesting the German Empire, 1871–1918 (Oxford, 2008), pp. 18–46; Jürgen Kocka, ‘The European Pattern and the German Case’, in Jürgen Kocka and Allen Mitchell (eds.), Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Oxford, 1993), pp. 3–39; Peter Lundgreen (ed.), Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte des Bürgertums: ein Bilanz des Bielefelder Sonderforschungsbereichs (1986–1997) (Göttingen, 2000); Paul Readman, ‘The Place of the Past in English Culture, c. 1890–1914’, Past and Present 186 (2005), pp. 147–99; Repp, Reformers, pp. 5–15; W. D. Rubinstein, ‘Cultural Explanations for Britain’s Economic Decline: How True?’, in Collins and Robbins, British Culture, pp. 59–90; John Alexander Williams, Turning to Nature in Germany: Hiking, Nudism and Conservation, 1900–1940 (Stanford, 2007), pp. 4–6.
- 18.
Alison Light, Forever England: Femininity, Literature and Conservatism between the Wars (Abingdon, 1991); Koshar, Transient Pasts, esp. p. 44; Readman, ‘Place of the Past’; Williams, Turning to Nature.
- 19.
Rohkrämer, Andere Moderne?
- 20.
James C. Scott, Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed (New Haven, 1998).
- 21.
Geoff Eley, ‘Making a Place in the Nation: Meanings of “Citizenship” in Wilhelmine Germany’, in Geoff Eley and James N. Retallack (eds.), Wilhelminism and Its Legacies: German Modernities, Imperialism, and the Meanings of Reform, 1890–1930 (Oxford, 2004), pp. 16–33 (p. 19).
- 22.
For example, Dagmar Günther, Alpine Quergänge: Kulturgeschichte des Bürgerlichen Alpinismus, 1830–1930 (Frankfurt, 1998); Hau, Cult of Health and Beauty; William H. Rollins, A Greener Vision of Home: Cultural Politics and Environmental Reform in the German Heimatschutz Movement 1904–1918 (Michigan, 1997); Williams, Turning to Nature, pp. 15–16.
- 23.
Repp, Reformers, pp. 6–11.
- 24.
David Matless, Landscape and Englishness (London, 1998), pp. 12–102. See also Melanie Tebbutt, ‘Rambling and Manly Identity in Derbyshire’s Dark Peak, 1880s–1920s’, The Historical Journal 4 (2006), pp. 1125–53.
- 25.
See J. K. Walton, ‘The Northern Rambler: Recreational Walking and the Popular Politics of Industrial England, from Peterloo to the 1930s’, Radical History Review 3 (2013), pp. 243–68; Hansen, Summits; Martin Scharfe, Berg-Sucht: Eine Kulturgeschichte des frühen Alpinismus (Vienna, 2007); Andrew Beattie, The Alps: A Cultural History (Oxford, 2006); Harvey Taylor, A Claim on the Countryside: A History of the British Outdoor Movement (Keele, 1997).
- 26.
Koshar, Transient Pasts, p. 44; Rohkrämer, Andere Moderne?
- 27.
See Michael Cowan, The Cult of the Will: Nervousness and German Modernity (Pennsylvania, 2008).
- 28.
Cooper, Colonialism in Question, pp. 146–47.
- 29.
Lynn Thomas, ‘Modernity’s Failings, Political Claims, and Intermediate Concepts’, American Historical Review 3 (2011), pp. 727–40 (p. 734).
- 30.
Cooper, Colonialism in Question, pp. 113–49; John J. MacAloon (ed.), Muscular Christianity in Colonial and Post-colonial Worlds (London, 2008); Parameshwar Gaonkar (ed.), Alternative Modernities (London, 2001); Shmuel N. Eisenstadt (ed.), Multiple Modernities (London, 2002); Bruce M. Knauft (ed.), Critically Modern: Alternatives, Alterities, Anthropologies (Indianapolis, 2002).
- 31.
Hansen, Summits.
- 32.
For example, see immediately preceding article to Eckenstein’s second publication on crampons: Rudolf Kauschka, ‘Die südlichen Türme von Vajolet’, ÖAZ XXXI:787 (1909), pp. 123–27 (pp. 124–25). Günther, Alpine Quergänge, pp. 155–276; Rainer Amstädter, Der Alpinismus: Kultur—Organisation—Politik (Vienna, 1996); Peter Hansen, ‘Albert Smith, the Alpine Club, and the Invention of Mountaineering in Mid-Victorian Britain’, Journal of British Studies 3 (1995), pp. 291–321.
- 33.
Eckenstein appears to have first been introduced to crampons in 1886: Oscar Eckenstein, ‘The Hohberghorn’, CCJ NS II:4 (1923), pp. 188–93 (p. 189). Tom Longstaff, a later president of the Alpine Club, remembered testing Eckenstein’s early designs alongside Aleister Crowley as early as 1899. Ed Douglas, Mountaineers (London, 2011), pp. 196–97 (p. 197).
- 34.
Westaway, ‘German Community’, with Eric Newby, A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush (London, 1958), quoted in Blakeney and Danger, ‘Eckenstein’, p. 63.
- 35.
Donna Haraway, The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness (Chicago, 2003); Bruno Latour, ‘A Collective of Humans and Nonhumans: Following Daedalus’s Labyrinth’, in David M. Kaplan (ed.), Readings in the Philosophy of Technology (Plymouth, 2009), pp. 156–67; Ingold, Being Alive, pp. 63–94.
- 36.
Ben Anderson, ‘The Construction of an Alpine Landscape: Building, Representing and Affecting the Eastern Alps, c. 1885–1914’, Journal of Cultural Geography 2 (2012), pp. 155–83.
- 37.
Hayden Lorimer, ‘Cultural Geography: The Busyness of Being “More-Than-Representational”’, Progress in Human Geography 1 (2005), pp. 83–94 (p. 84).
- 38.
Ingold, Being Alive, pp. 67–88; Haraway, Companion Species, p. 6; Nigel Thrift, Non-representational Theory: Space | Politics | Affect (Abingdon, 2008), pp. 89–106.
- 39.
See Steve Pile, ‘Emotions and Affect in Recent Human Geography’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers NS 35 (2010), pp. 5–20.
- 40.
An excellent summary is John Wylie, Landscape (London, 2007).
- 41.
Denis Cosgrove, Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape (London, 1984), p. xiv.
- 42.
Tim Ingold, ‘The Temporality of Landscape’, World Archaeology 2 (1993), pp. 152–74; Lorimer, ‘“More-than-Representational”’, p. 85; Don Mitchell, ‘Dead Labor and the Political Economy of Landscape—California Living, California Dying’, in Kay Anderson et al. (eds.), Handbook of Cultural Geography (London, 2003), pp. 233–48 (pp. 240–41); Richard Schein, ‘The Place of Landscape: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting An American Scene’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 4 (1997), pp. 660–80 (p. 662).
- 43.
Thrift, Non-representational Theory, pp. 235–43.
- 44.
For scholars that have discussed in some way the relationships between rambling and mountaineering and urban culture, see Amstädter, Alpinismus; Annaliese Gidl, Alpenverein: Die Städter entdecken die Alpen (Cologne, 2007); Peter Grupp, Faszination Berg: Die Geschichte des Alpinismus (Vienna, 2008), p. 167; Günther, Alpine Quergänge, pp. 77–160; Hansen, ‘Albert Smith’, pp. 300–24; Tait S. Keller, Apostles of the Alps: Mountaineering and Nation Building in Germany and Austria, 1860–1939 (Chapel Hill, 2016), pp. 36–52; David Robbins, ‘Sport, Hegemony and the Middle Class: The Victorian Mountaineers’, Theory Culture Society 4 (1987), pp. 579–601; Bernhard Tschofen, Berg, Kultur, Moderne: Volkskundliches aus den Alpen (Vienna, 1999); Paul Veyne, ‘Bergsteigen: Eine Bürgerliche Leidenschaft’, in Philipp Felsch, Beat Gugger and Gabriele Rath (eds.), Berge, eine Unverständliche Leidenschaft: Buch zur Ausstellung des Alpenverein-Museums in der Hofburg Innsbruck (Bozen, 2007), pp. 11–32; Westaway, ‘German Community’.
- 45.
Mark W. Turner, Backward Glances: Cruising the Queer Streets of New York and London (London, 2003), p. 127.
- 46.
Leif Jerram, Streetlife: The Untold History of Europe’s Twentieth Century (Oxford, 2011); Matt Houlbrook, Queer London: Perils and Pleasure in the Sexual Metropolis (Chicago, 2005); Erika D. Rappaport, ‘“The Halls of Temptation”: Gender, Politics, and the Construction of the Department Store in Late Victorian London’, Journal of British Studies 1 (1996), pp. 58–83; Judith Walkowitz, ‘Going Public: Shopping, Street Harassment, and Streetwalking in Late Victorian London’, Representations 62 (1998), pp. 1–30; Adelheid von Saldern, trans. Bruce Little, The Challenge of Modernity: German Social and Cultural Studies, 1890–1960 (Chicago, 2002), pp. 93–163.
- 47.
Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (Cambridge, MA, 1984); Simon Gunn, ‘Translating Bourdieu: Cultural Capital and the English Middle Class in Historical Perspective’, British Journal of Sociology 1 (2005), pp. 49–64; Simon Gunn, Public Culture of the Victorian Middle Class: Ritual and Authority in the English Industrial City, 1890–1914 (Manchester, 2007); Manfred Hettling, ‘Bürgerliche Kultur: Bürgerlichkeit als Kulturelles System’, in Lundgreen, Kulturgeschichte des Bürgertums, pp. 319–40; Jennifer Jenkins, Provincial Modernity: Local Culture and Liberal Politics in Fin-de-siècle Hamburg (Ithaca, NY, 2003); Patrick Joyce, The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City (London, 2003), pp. 106–27; Maiken Umbach, German Cities and Bourgeois Modernism, 1890–1924 (Oxford, 2009).
- 48.
David Harvey, ‘The Nature of Environment: Dialectics of Social and Environmental Change’, in Ralph Miliband and Leo Panitch (eds.), Real Problems, False Solutions (London, 1993), pp. 1–51 (p. 28).
- 49.
See Ben Anderson, ‘A Liberal Countryside? The Manchester Ramblers’ Federation and the “Social Readjustment” of Urban Citizens, 1929–1936’, Urban History 1 (2011), pp. 84–102; Westaway, ‘German Community’; Nicholas Mailänder, Im Zeichen des Edelweiss: Die Geschichte Münchens als Bergsteigerstadt (Zurich, 2006).
- 50.
Although calculating regional membership is difficult for the CHA, sources suggest that around a third of holiday-makers came from the Manchester conurbation—4500 in 1910—and the overwhelming majority came from the towns and cities of Northern England. In the same year, the Alpenverein had a similar presence in Munich, with around 7100 mountaineers in six different local ‘Sektionen’ or branches. National Home Reading Union Magazine, October 1902, in T. Arthur Leonard’s Personal Press Cuttings Folder, GMCRO/B/CHA/HIS/16/1, p. 19; Anon., ‘C. H. A. Centres and Membership’, Comradeship: The magazine of the Co-operative Holidays Association, in Connection with the National Home Reading Union [Comradeship] 5:5 (1912), p. 80; Anon., ‘Town Reunions’, Comradeship 7:4 (1914), p. 50; Anon., ‘Bestandsverzeichnis des D. u. Ö. Alpenvereins 1910’, Mitteilungen des deutschen und oesterreichischen Alpenvereins [MDOeAV] 7 (15 April 1910), pp. 92–96 (pp. 93–95).
- 51.
Blackbourn ‘Cultural Contacts and Transfers’, p. 18; Michael Werner and Bénédict Zimmermann, ‘Vergleich, Transfer, Verflechtung. Der Ansatz der Histoire Croisée und die Herausforderung des Transnationalen’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft 4 (2002), pp. 607–36 (p. 610); Michael Werner and Bénédict Zimmermann, ‘Beyond Comparison: Histoire Croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity’, History and Theory 45 (2006), pp. 30–50 (pp. 33–34). See also Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, ‘Historische Komparistik in der Internationalen Geschichtsschreibung’, in Gunille Budde, Sebastian Conrad and Oliver Janz (eds.), Transnationale Geschichte: Themen, Tendenzen und Theorien (Göttingen, 2006), pp. 137–49 (p. 146).
- 52.
For advocates of the transfer approach, see Michael Müller and Cornelius Torp, ‘Conceptualising Transnational Spaces in History’, European Review of History—Revue Européenne d’Histoire 5 (2009), pp. 609–17 (p. 609); Johannes Paulmann, ‘Review: Internationaler Vergleich und Interkultureller Transfer: Zwei Forschungsansätze zur Europäischen Geschichte des 18. bis 20. Jahrhunderts’, Historische Zeitschrift 3 (1998), pp. 649–85; Dominik Geppert and Robert Gerwarth, ‘Introduction’, in Geppert and Gerwarth, Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain, pp. 1–13 (pp. 4–6).
- 53.
Blackbourn, ‘Cultural Contacts and Transfers’, p. 29. See also Patricia Clavin, ‘Defining Transnationalism’, Contemporary European History 4 (2005), pp. 421–39. Werner and Zimmermann, ‘Beyond Comparison’, pp. 35–36; Geppert and Gerwarth, ‘Introduction’, p. 5.
- 54.
See Westaway, ‘German Community’.
- 55.
Werner and Zimmermann, ‘Beyond Comparison’, pp. 36–37; Sebastian Conrad, ‘Doppelte Marginalisierung. Plädoyer für eine Transnationale Perspektive auf die Deutsche Geschichte’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft 1 (2002), pp. 145–69 (p. 146); Hans-Ulrich Wehler, ‘Transnationale Geschichte—der Neue Königsweg Historischer Forschung?’, in Budde et al., Transnationale Geschichte, pp. 161–74.
- 56.
See Bourdieu, Distinction; Gunn, Public Culture, p. 27.
- 57.
See The Rucksack Club Third Annual Dinner, Friday December 2nd 1904 (Menu), in RC Archive/Box 109; Walton, ‘The Northern Rambler’.
- 58.
Scharfe, Berg-Sucht, pp. 49–76.
Bibliography
Archival Sources
Greater Manchester County Records Office [GMCRO].
The Rucksack Club Archive [RC Archive].
Newspapers and Journals
Climbers’ Club Journal [CCJ].
Comradeship: The Magazine of the Co-operative Holidays Association, in Connection with the National Home Reading Union [Comradeship].
Mitteilungen des deutschen und oesterreichischen Alpenvereins [MDOeAV].
Österreichische Alpenzeitung: Organ des Österreichischen Alpenklubs [ÖAZ].
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Anderson, B. (2020). Introduction. In: Cities, Mountains and Being Modern in fin-de-siècle England and Germany. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54000-3_1
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