Abstract
In the 19th century Sir W. Thomson—widely known as ‘Lord Kelvin’ and famous for his definition of the absolute zero temperature—called it a marvel that a subject whose brain was stimulated with an enormous electro-magnet perceived nothing. Today, however, such a result is one of the main frustrations of brain-stimulating scientists and practitioners. Although non-invasive brain devices are increasingly used in and outside of academic settings, expert practitioners have problems attaining scientific credibility for the therapeutic claims about their devices, and hence in getting them approved by medical agencies like the American Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency. In spite of the problems with scientific credibility and approval, these devices are easily accessible on the Internet or in brain clinics.
Lord Lindsay got an enormous electro-magnet made, so large that the head of any person, wishing to try the experiment, could get well between the poles, in a region of excessively powerful magnetic force. What was the result of the experiment? If I were to say nothing! I would do it scant justice. The result was marvellous, and the marvel is that nothing was perceived. Your head, in a space through which a piece of copper falls as if through mud, perceives nothing. (Thomson, 1889 , p. 261)
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
See, for example, the ‘DAVID PAL36 with CES’ www.mindalive.com/2_1_8.htm (accessed on 13-11-2012).
- 2.
See, for example, www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7nehK63Uk4 (accessed on 13-11-2012).
- 3.
See www.youtube.com/watch?v=HUW7dQ92yDU&feature=channel_video_title and www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_olmdAQx5s&feature=youtube_gdata_player (accessed on 13-11-2012).
- 4.
According to one practitioner prices vary from 20,000 to 70,000 euros.
- 5.
See for clinics in Canada and the Netherlands: www.mindcarecentres.com and www.brainclinics.com (accessed on 13-11-2012).
- 6.
See, for example, www.shaktitechnology.com, www.healthcentral.com/migraine/treatment-256320-5.html (accessed on 13-11-2012) and (Macrae, 2008).
- 7.
That is, some therapists train the brain as a whole, other therapists work with (and try to balance) the left and right side of the brain, and again others work with brain areas.
- 8.
To compare, on July 7, 2014, Web of Knowledge gave 30,239 articles on transcranial magnetic stimulation (4420 when refined with research area psychiatry), 1637 on transcranial direct current stimulation, 994 on neurofeedback, 87 on cranial electrotherapy stimulation, and 22 on audiovisual entrainment.
- 9.
SPECT stands for single-photon emission computed tomography, PET means positron emission tomography, qEEG is quantitative electroencephalography, and fMRI refers to functional magnetic resonance imaging.
- 10.
After Geiger’s book in 2003 and a documentary named Flicker in 2008, the traditional dream machine was released again in 2012. See www.dreamachine.ca/ (accessed on 13-11-2012).
- 11.
Retrieved from www.mindalive.com, in December 2011.
- 12.
Nowadays, people can also use the Internet to evoke hallucinatory experiences, or upload mp3s with names like ‘marihuana’, ‘cocaine’, or ‘ecstasy’ (see, for example, www.i-doser.com, accessed on 13-11-2012).
- 13.
Advertisements were found in the Wellcome Trust Library, in London. See, for example, http://catalogue.wellcomelibrary.org/record=b2018563~S12
- 14.
To give another example, www.mindalive.com sells a device for Audio-Visual Entrainment (AVE), CES, and tDCS but warns: ‘CAUTIONS: tDCS is very powerful and if applied improperly, can result in negative side effects. Therefore, the sessions for tDCS will only be released to qualified clinicians’ (accessed on 13-11-2012).
- 15.
To give an example, the National Health Council of the Netherlands evaluated rTMS as an effective treatment for depression in 2008, while the Health Care Insurance Board decided in 2011 that insufficient data existed to state that rTMS is an effective study for depression.
- 16.
Analysis made with Web of Knowledge.
- 17.
Costs are variable. In the Netherlands, one session costs around 65–100 euros. Some persons need 20 sessions, others 70; in general they take 30–40 sessions. In most clinics clients also get a qEEG which costs around 500 euros. People are only covered for these costs if they receive their neurofeedback therapies from registered psychotherapists. Otherwise, some reimbursement is possible if the neurofeedback is called ‘coaching’ or ‘alternative therapy’. In practice, Dutch clients pay about half of the costs themselves. In the USA, insurance companies generally do not cover neurofeedback (Information retrieved from interviews with Dutch practitioners).
- 18.
For example, in the Netherlands, the section neurofeedback of the Dutch Psychological Association uses the criteria of the American ‘Biofeedback Certification International Alliance’—an online exam for biofeedback specialists—for their register. However, at the time of writing, the association had only 30 therapists registered while many more therapists offer the therapy (See http://www.psynip.nl/sectoren-en-secties/intersector/neurofeedback.html and http://www.bcia.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=1).
- 19.
That is, I attended two days of this four-day course.
- 20.
A qEEG is an EEG that is (automatically) analyzed and compared with a standard and visualized in an understandable image. Instead of incomprehensible brainwaves, it shows heads with green (normal), red/yellow (high), or blue (low) activity.
- 21.
A Web of Knowledge analysis demonstrates that the term ‘neurofeedback’ was seldom used in the 1970s, made its appearance in the 1980s, rose in the 1990s, and its use has rapidly increased during the last decade, also called the ‘decade after the decade of the brain’ (See, for example, www.dana.org/news/cerebrum/detail.aspx?id=25802 accessed on 15-11-2012).
- 22.
According to contemporary neurofeedback experts, training different brain frequencies can produce different mental states. Normally, alpha waves have a frequency range from 8 to 12 Hertz and when these dominate it gives a feeling of peacefulness. Increasing the amplitude of your beta waves (13–21 Hertz) makes you more focused, high beta (20–32/38 Hertz) leads to hyperalertness, theta waves (4–8 Hertz) increase your creativity, delta waves (1–4 Hertz) normally occur mainly during sleep, and gamma waves (38–42 Hertz) are said to correspond with cognitive processing. Problems occur when these waves are not in balance anymore. A brain that shows high beta waves when the subject is asked to relax can reveal that the person is stressed or anxious. Too high alpha and theta can refer to attention deficit (hyperactive) disorder (ADD/ADHD) or depression, and delta waves during waking hours can indicate brain injury (Demos, 2005). If one of these is the case, neurofeedback can be the solution to bring these frequencies back to normal.
- 23.
That is, this historical exploration (Chap. 3) can be read as a genealogy in the sense of Foucault. A genealogy is ‘to discover that truth or being does not lie at the root of what we know and what we are, but the exteriority of accidents’ (Foucault, 1984, p. 81). It does not analyze phenomena as inevitable, but tries to understand or diagnose the present by treating their emergence as a question or problem (Abi-Rached & Rose, 2010).
References
Abi-Rached, J. M., & Rose, N. (2010). The birth of the neuromolecular gaze. History of the Human Sciences, 23(1), 11–36. doi:10.1177/0952695109352407.
Arns, M., de Ridder, S., Strehl, U., Breteler, M., & Coenen, A. (2009). Efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in ADHD: The effects on inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity: A meta-analysis. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 40(3), 180–189. doi:10.1177/155005940904000311.
Ashmore, M., Brown, S. D., & Macmillan, K. (2005). Lost in the mall with Mesmer and Wundt: Demarcations and demonstrations in the psychologies. Science, Technology and Human Values, 30(1), 76–110. doi:10.1177/0162243904270716.
Brunoni, A. R., Nitsche, M. A., Bolognini, N., Bikson, M., Wagner, T., Merabet, L., et al. (2012). Clinical research with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): Challenges and future directions. Brain Stimulation, 5(3), 175–195. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2011.03.002.
Canales, J. (2011). “A number of scenes in a badly cut film”: Observation in the age of strobe. In L. Daston & E. Lunbeck (Eds.), Histories of scientific observation (pp. 230–254). Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press.
Coben, R., Linden, M., & Myers, T. E. (2010). Neurofeedback for autistic spectrum disorder: A review of the literature. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 35(1), 83–105.
de la Peña, C. T. (2001). Designing the electric body: Sexuality, masculinity and the electric belt in America, 1880–1920. Journal of Design History, 4, 275–290.
de Rijcke, S., & Beaulieu, A. (2007). Essay review: Taking a good look at why scientific images don’t speak for themselves. Theory and Psychology, 17(5), 733–742. doi:10.1177/0959354307081626.
Demos, J. N. (2005). Getting started with neurofeedback. New York/London: W.W. Norton.
Dumit, J. (2004). Picturing personhood: Brain scans and biomedical identity (Information series). Princeton, NJ/Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Ellison, K. (2010). Neurofeedback gains popularity and second looks. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/05/health/05neurofeedback.html
Foucault, M. (1984). Nietzsche, genealogy, history. In P. Rabinow (Ed.), The Foucault reader (pp. 76–100). New York: Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (1988). Technologies of the self. In L. M. Martin, H. Gutman, & P. H. Hutton (Eds.), Technologies of the self. A seminar with Michel Foucault (pp. 16–49). Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press.
Geiger, J. (2003). Chapel of extreme experience. A short history of stroboscopic light and the dream machine. Brooklyn, NY: Soft Skull Press.
Green, E., & Green, A. (1978). Beyond biofeedback. New York: Dell.
Greenwood, J. D. (1996). Freud’s “tally” argument, placebo control treatments, and the evaluation of psychotherapy. Philosophy of Science, 63(4), 605–621. doi:10.1086/289979.
Gruzelier, J., Egner, T., & Vernon, D. (2006). Validating the efficacy of neurofeedback for optimising performance. Progress in Brain Research, 159, 421–431.
Hayward, R. (2001). The tortoise and the love-machine: Grey Walter and the politics of electroencephalography. Science in Context, 14(4), 615–641.
Hesse, M. (2010). High fidelity; are kids catching a buzz just by listening to music? I-Doser says fer sure, man. Retrieved from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-25452146.html
Higgins, E. S., & George, M. S. (2009). Brain stimulation therapies for clinicians. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Horvath, J., Perez, J., Forrow, L., Fregni, F., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2011). Transcranial magnetic stimulation: A historical evaluation and future prognosis of therapeutically relevant ethical concerns. Journal of Medical Ethics, 37(3), 137–143. doi:10.1136/jme.2010.039966.
Huitema, R., & Eling, P. A. T. M. (2009). Neurofeedback—Wat is het waard? Tijdschrift voor Orthopedagogiek, 48, 115–126.
Hutchison, M. (1990). The megabrain report special issue on sound and light technologies Megabrain Report (Vol. 1). Sausalito, CA: Megabrain Inc, from http://mindplacesupport.com/files/3514/0744/0313/MegaBrain_Report_Volume_1_Number_2.pdf
Huxley, A. (1994). The doors of perception. Heaven and hell. London: Flamingo.
Ioannidis, J. P. (2008). Effectiveness of antidepressants: An evidence myth constructed from a thousand randomized trials? Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 3, 14. doi:10.1186/1747-5341-3-14.
Kamiya, J. (1968). Conscious control of brain waves. Psychology Today, 1(11), 56–60.
Loeb, L. (1999). Consumerism and commercial electrotherapy: The medical battery company in nineteenth-century London. Journal of Victorian Culture, 4(2), 252–275. doi:10.1080/13555509909505992.
Loftus, E., & Pickrell, J. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25(12), 720–725.
Logemann, H. N. A., Lansbergen, M. M., Van Os, T. W. D. P., Böcker, K. B. E., & Kenemans, J. L. (2010). The effectiveness of EEG-feedback on attention, impulsivity and EEG: A sham feedback controlled study. Neuroscience Letters, 479(1), 49–53. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.05.026.
Loo, S. K., & Barkley, R. A. (2005). Clinical utility of EEG in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Applied Neuropsychology, 12(2), 64–76.
Lubar, J. F., & Shouse, M. N. (1976). EEG and behavioral changes in a hyperkinetic child concurrent with training of the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR). Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 1(3), 293–306.
Macrae, F. (2008). The “thinking cap” that could unlock your inner genius and boost creativity. Mail Online. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1064431/The-thinking-cap-unlock-inner-genius-boost-creativity.html
McGoey, L. (2010). Profitable failure: Antidepressant drugs and the triumph of flawed experiments. History of the Human Sciences, 23(1), 58–78. doi:10.1177/0952695109352414.
Neuronetics. (2008). Neurostar TMS therapy (FDA approval).
Nitsche, M. A., & Paulus, W. (2011). Transcranial direct current stimulation—Update 2011. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 29(6), 463–492. doi:10.3233/RNN-2011-0618.
Pascual-Leone, A., & Wagner, T. (2007). A brief summary of the history of noninvasive brain stimulation. Supplemental Material: Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering. Retrieved from http://www.annualreviews.org/article/suppl/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.9.061206.133100?file=SupplementalApendix.pdf
Rosch, P. J. (2009). Bioelectromagnetic and subtle energy medicine. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1172(1), 297–311. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04535.x.
Smythies, J. R. (1959a). The stroboscopic patterns. 1. The dark phase. British Journal of Psychology, 50(2), 106–116.
Smythies, J. R. (1959b). The stroboscopic patterns.2. The phenomenology of the bright phase and afterimages. British Journal of Psychology, 50(4), 305–324.
Smythies, J. R. (1960). The stroboscopic patterns.3. Further experiments and discussion. British Journal of Psychology, 51(3), 247–255.
Stengers, I. (1997). Power and invention: Situating science. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Sterman, M. B., & Macdonald, L. R. (1978). Effects of central cortical EEG feedback training on incidence of poorly controlled seizures. Epilepsia, 19, 207–222.
Szasz, T. (2006). The pretense of psychology as science: The myth of mental illness in Statu Nascendi. Current Psychology, 25(1), 42–49. doi:10.1007/s12144-006-1015-3.
Tanner, J. M., & Inhelder, B. (1971). Discussions on child development. In one volume. The proceedings of the meeting of the World Health Organization Study Group on the Psychobiological Development of the Child, Geneva 1953–1956 (Vols. 1–4, Vol. 1–4). Edinburgh: Tavistock Publications.
Thomson, W. S. (1889). The six gateways of knowledge. Popular lectures and adresses. 1. constitution of matter, Nature series (Vols. 1–3, Vol. 1, pp. 253–299). London: MacMillan & Co. Retrieved from http://dss-edit.com/ethernity/Thompson-Kelvin_Popular_Lectures_and_Addresses_Constitut.pdf
van As, J., Hummelen, J. W., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2010). Neurofeedback and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: What is it and is it working? [Article in Dutch]. Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie, 52(1), 41–50.
Vijselaar, J. (2007). Psyche en elektriciteit. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Universiteit Utrecht, Faculteit Geesteswetenschappen.
Vollebregt, M. A., van Dongen-Boomsma, M., Buitelaar, J. K., & Slaats-Willemse, D. (2014). Does EEG-neurofeedback improve neurocognitive functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? A systematic review and a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(5), 460–472.
Walter, W. G. (1953). The living brain. London: G. Duckworth.
Walter, W. G. (1956). Comments on professor Piaget’s paper. In J. M. Tanner & B. Inheleder (Eds.), Discussions on child development (Vol. 4, pp. 53–60). London: Tavistock Publications.
Walter, W. G. (1957). The living brain. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.
Wyrwicka, W., & Sterman, M. B. (1968). Instrumental conditioning of sensorimotor cortex EEG spindles in the waking cat. Physiology and Behavior, 3(5), 703–707. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(68)90139-X.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2016 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Brenninkmeijer, J. (2016). Brain Devices and the Marvel. In: Neurotechnologies of the Self. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53386-9_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53386-9_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-53385-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-53386-9
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)