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1968 and German Firms: On Marking Out a Field of Research

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Abstract

The year of 1968 marks an important turning point in both West Germany’s political and social history. The student rebellions did not only lastingly change Germany’s political culture and the country’s social structure. But they also marked a transformation of economic policy, which completely turned to Keynesian approaches in the aftermath of the 1967 crises. However, the political revolution also changed the entrepreneurial behavior. The movement of 1968 saw itself anti-capitalistic and critical toward big business and raised global allegations, first of all against the Springer corporation. These accusations also became agents of structural change toward a mass consumer society. In the course of this structural change, companies themselves changed their organizational patterns, their hierarchies, as well as finally their behavior in dealing with their own past.

First Publication: Werner Plumpe, 1968 und die deutschen Unternehmen. Zur Markierung eines Forschungsfeldes, in: Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 49 (2004), 44–65. The present chapter is a revised version of a lecture given in May 2003 as part of a public lecture series organized by the Gesellschaft für Unternehmensgeschichte: ‘1968 und die deutschen Unternehmen’. The lecture format has largely been retained. My thanks are due to Roman Köster of Frankfurt for his great encouragement and many pointers.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Obviously, ‘1968’ was not a phenomenon confined to West Germany but a truly international symbol of political unrest and accelerated structural change. Nor was there a single, clearly defined ‘’68er movement’. However, in what follows, key differences will be largely overlooked in favor of delineating an area of corporate-historical research. They will be treated in blanket terms; otherwise, no coherent line of argument could be presented within the confines of a lecture. For those key differences, recommended sources include Ingrid Gilcher-Holtey (ed.), 1968—vom Ereignis zum Gegenstand der Geschichtswissenschaft, Göttingen 1998. For the global context (albeit with weaknesses), see Ingrid Gilcher-Holtey, Die 68er Bewegung. Deutschland—Westeuropa—USA, Munich 2001.

  2. 2.

    It is amazing how deeply today’s controversies colored the picture back then. See Helmut Schelsky, Die Arbeit tun die anderen. Klassenkampf und Priesterherrschaft der Intellektuellen, Opladen 1975. Another important source is Arnold Gehlen, Moral und Hypermoral: eine pluralistische Ethik, Frankfurt a.M. 1969.

  3. 3.

    Gerd Langguth, Mythos 68. Die Gewaltphilosophie von Rudi Dutschke. Ursachen und Folgen der Studentenbwegung, Munich 2001.

  4. 4.

    For an overview of the literature, see Klaus Weinhauer, Zwischen Aufbruch und Revolte. Die 68er-Bewegungen und die Gesellschaft der Bundesrepublik der sechziger Jahre, in: Neue Politische Literatur 46 (2001), 412–32, and Gabriele Metzler, Breite Straßen, schmale Pfade. Fünf Wege zur Geschichte der Bundesrepublik, in: Neue Politische Literatur 46 (2001), 244–67.

  5. 5.

    Worth reading as an essayistic outline of this transition to a hedonistic world is Arne Andersen, Der Traum vom guten Leben. Alltags- und Konsumgeschichte vom Wirtschaftswunder bis heute, Frankfurt a.M. 1997. On the 1960s in general, see Axel Schildt/Detlef Siegfried/Karl Christian Lammers (eds), Dynamische Zeiten. Die 60er Jahre in den beiden deutschen Gesellschaften, Hamburg 2000.

  6. 6.

    As one example among many, see Wolfgang Kraushaar, ‘1968’. Das Jahr, das alles verändert hat, Munich 1998.

  7. 7.

    Ulrich Herbert, Liberalisierung als Lernprozess. Die Bundesrepublik in der deutschen Geschichte—eine Skizze, in: Ulrich Herbert (ed.), Wandlungsprozesse in Westdeutschland. Belastung, Integration, Liberalisierung 1945–1980, Göttingen 2002, 7–49.

  8. 8.

    Whichever way Adorno’s cultural critique is read, it boils down to rejection of a society of mass consumption, notably of its immediately obvious attributes: television, the tabloid press, mass tourism, and so on.

  9. 9.

    Christian Kleinschmidt, Das ‘1968’ der Manager: Fremdwahrnehmung und Selbstreflexion einer sozialen Elite in den 1960er Jahren, in: Jan-Otmar Hesse/Christian Kleinschmidt/Karl Lauschke (eds), Kulturalismus, Neue Institutionenökonomik oder Theorienvielfalt. Eine Zwischenbilanz der Unternehmensgeschichte, Essen 2002, 19–31. In this connection, see also the excellent study by Luc Boltanski and Eve Chiapello, Le nouvel esprit du capitalisme, Paris 1999, which by evaluating management literature demonstrates the repercussions of the critique of capitalism associated with ‘1968’ on French firms. For a German overview, see Luc Boltanski/Eve Chiapello, Die Rolle der Kritik in der Dynamik des Kapitalismus und der normative Wandel, in: Berliner Journal für Soziologie 4 (2001), 459–77.

  10. 10.

    An exemplary source here is Hermann Lübbe, Väter und Söhne. Wider die politromantische Verklärung der ‘Kritischen Generation’, in: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (APuZ) [a supplement to the German weekly Das Parlament], Vol. 20, 13 May 1988.

  11. 11.

    A typical source are the pieces published in Hans-Werner Richter (ed.), Plädoyer für eine neue Regierung oder—keine Alternative, Reinbek 1965. The list of contributors reads like a Who’s who of 1960s left-wing intellectuals.

  12. 12.

    For a fine overview of the period, see Uwe Bergmann, Rebellion der Studenten oder die neue Opposition, Reinbek 1968.

  13. 13.

    Dutschke’s alternative approaches boiled down to ‘community-building’ exercises among like-minded people; they always tended toward Protestant Christian thinking. See ‘Rudi Dutschke zu Protokoll’, a TV interview by Günter Grass, Voltaire-Flugschrift, Frankfurt 1968.

  14. 14.

    See more recently Rudi Dutschke, Jeder hat sein Leben ganz zu führen. Die Tagebücher 1963–1979, Cologne 2003.

  15. 15.

    Siegwald Lönnendonker (ed.), Linksintellektueller Aufbruch zwischen ‘Kulturrevolution’ und ‘kultureller Zerstörung’: Der Sozialistische Deutsche Studentenbund in der Nachkriegsgeschichte 1946–1969. Dokumentation eines Symposiums, Opladen 1998. See also Willy Albrecht, Der Sozialistische Deutsche Studentenbund. Vom parteikonformen Studentenverband zum Repräsentanten der Neuen Linken, Bonn 1994.

  16. 16.

    Gerd Langguth, Protestbewegung. Entwicklung—Niedergang—Renaissance. Die Neue Linke seit 1968, Cologne 1983.

  17. 17.

    Wolfgang Lefevre, Einige Konsequenzen aus der Streikbewegung im September 1969 für unsere Arbeit, in: Neue Kritik 54 (1969). On the subject of ‘Concerted Action’, see also Tim Schanetzky, Sachverständiger Rat und Konzertierte Aktion: Staat, Gesellschaft und wissenschaftliche Expertise in der bundesrepublikanischen Wirtschaftspolitik, in: Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 91 (2004), 310–31.

  18. 18.

    Werner Kurzlechner, Die Unternehmer und die Herausforderung der 1968er im Spiegel der öffentlichen Meinung, Master’s thesis, Frankfurt 2003, 72.

  19. 19.

    Kurzlechner, Die Unternehmer (see note 18), 151 ff.

  20. 20.

    Rainer Müller, Zur politischen Funktion kritischer Gruppen in der Öffentlichkeit: eine soziologische Untersuchung der Cahora-Bassa-Kampagne in der BRD und in Westberlin, MS, Berlin 1972.

  21. 21.

    Among the few exceptions was Jörg Huffschmidt, Die Politik des Kapitals. Konzentration und Wirtschaftspolitik in der Bundesrepublik, Frankfurt a.M. 1970. Huffschmidt was one of the few economists in the movement known generally as ‘the Left’. Its relative lack of sensitivity to the business world may have had something to do with its mainly social and arts-based educational program. This was traditionally marked by reserve toward firms, tending at most to adopt a moralistic stance.

  22. 22.

    Friedrich Pollock, Stadien des Kapitalismus, edited and introduced by Helmut Diebel, Munich 1975.

  23. 23.

    See also Gudrun Kruip, Das ‘Welt’-‘Bild’ des Axel Springer Verlags. Journalismus zwischen westlichen Werten und deutschen Denktraditionen, Munich 1999, 217 ff.

  24. 24.

    For the term [ökonomische Charaktermasken], see Karl Marx, Das Kapital. Kritik der politischen Ökonomie, Vol. 1, MEW 23, 100.

  25. 25.

    Hans Magnus Enzensberger/Karl Markus Michel (eds), Kapitalismus in der Bundesrepublik. Kursbuch 1971, Berlin 1970.

  26. 26.

    Granted, in communist splinter groups, there was much talk of monopolies and big capital. However, these ideological schemata did not as a rule correspond to the kind of nuanced examination of the structure and modus operandi of economic organizations that were ‘covered’ (so proponents thought) by such terms as ‘greed for profit’, ‘exploitation’, and ‘suppression’.

  27. 27.

    See also Werner Plumpe, Unternehmen im Nationalsozialismus. Eine Zwischenbilanz, in: Werner Abelshauser/Jan-Otmar Hesse/Werner Plumpe (eds), Wirtschaftsordnung, Staat und Unternehmen. Neue Forschungen zur Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Nationalsozialismus, Festschrift für Dietmar Petzina zum 65. Geburtstag, Essen 2003, 243–66.

  28. 28.

    Günter Wallraff, Industriereportagen. Als Arbeiter in deutschen Großbetrieben, Reinbek 1970.

  29. 29.

    See also Peter Brückner, Das Selbstbild des Unternehmers. Eine empirisch-sozialpsychologische Untersuchung für die Bundesvereinigung der Deutschen Arbeitgeberverbände, Heidelberg 1966.

  30. 30.

    Contemporary witness statements show nonetheless that such debate could vary widely from firm to firm as well as from one branch to another.

  31. 31.

    On the subject of Friedrich, see the thorough coverage in: Volker R. Berghahn/Paul J. Friedrich, Otto A. Friedrich. Ein politischer Unternehmer: sein Leben und seine Zeit 1902–1975, Frankfurt a.M. 1993.

  32. 32.

    Archiv für Christlich-Demokratische Politik (ACDP), I-093–097/4, Nl. Otto A. Friedrich, Studenten 1969. I am grateful to my colleague Tim Schanetzky, currently researching political discussion in the 1960s and 1970s, for drawing my attention to this source.

  33. 33.

    For the policy program of the Federal government, see the Regierungserklärung or government statement issued by Chancellor Willy Brandt on 28 October 1969. It is reprinted in: Ingo von Münch (ed.), Regierungserklärungen 1949–1973, compiled by Peter Pulte, Berlin 1973, 227–59.

  34. 34.

    Kurzlechner, Die Unternehmer (see note 18), 73 ff.

  35. 35.

    See also Dirk Schindelbeck/Volker Ilgen, ‘Haste was, biste was!’ Werbung für die soziale Marktwirtschaft, Darmstadt 1999, 181.

  36. 36.

    See also Kurzlechner, Die Unternehmer (see note 18), 43 ff.

  37. 37.

    Kurzlechner, Die Unternehmer (see note 18), 47.

  38. 38.

    In the eyes of the ‘Left’, of course, this also elevated Abs into a symbol not only of the power of the banks but of the Nazi past as well; see Eberhard Czichon, Die Bank und die Macht. Hermann Josef Abs, die Deutsche Bank und die Politik, Cologne 1995—a typically East German book; incidentally, the first West German edition of which had to be amended in key points following a series of legal judgments.

  39. 39.

    Diana Maria Friz, Die Stahlgiganten: Alfred Krupp und Berthold Beitz, Frankfurt 1990. Incidentally, Beitz’s active intervention on behalf of persecuted persons in occupied Eastern Europe during the Second World War clearly continued to play a very minor role in the early 1970s; see Thomas Sandkühler, ‘Endlösung’ in Galizien. Der Judenmord in Ostpolen 1941–1944 und die Rettungsaktionen von Berthold Beitz, Bonn 1996.

  40. 40.

    See Andrea Rehling’s study of ‘type’ formation, Die deutschen Wirtschaftseliten in der öffentlichen Wahrnehmung am Beispiel von Spiegel, Stern und Quick, in: Akkumulation 18 (2003), 1–13. Particularly the ‘corporate patriarch’ still (in the 1950s) enjoyed a positive correlation with the ‘economic miracle’.

  41. 41.

    Kurzlechner, Die Unternehmer (see note 18), 78 ff.

  42. 42.

    For background, see the tendentious but highly informative portrayal by Walter Simon, Macht und Herrschaft der Unternehmensverbände BDI [Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie, the Federation of German Industry], BDA und DIHT [Deutscher Industrie- und Handelskammertag, Congress of German Chambers of Commerce and Industry] im ökonomischen und politischen System der BRD, Cologne 1976, 134 ff.

  43. 43.

    It is important to bear in mind here that warnings of a coup also served a purely tactical purpose: demonizing the student movement and the left-wing fringe of the new coalition government was half the battle. Not the whole battle, of course—not by any means!

  44. 44.

    Paul Erker, Einleitung: Industrie-Eliten im 20. Jahrhundert, in Paul Erker/Toni Pierenkemper (eds), Deutsche Unternehmer zwischen Kriegswirtschaft und Wiederaufbau. Studien zur Erfahrungsbildung von Industrie-Eliten, Munich, 1999, 1–18, esp. 18.

  45. 45.

    The same objections apply to an otherwise highly informative study by Volker R. Berghahn, Unternehmer und Politik in der Bundesrepublik, Frankfurt 1985.

  46. 46.

    Wolfgang Kraushaar, ‘1968’ als Mythos, Chiffre und Zäsur, Hamburg 2000, 248.

  47. 47.

    Regarding the material living conditions of the late 1960s, the reader is once again referred to Andersen, Der Traum (see above, note 5).

  48. 48.

    Arnold Sywottek, The Americanization of everyday life? Early trends in consumer and leisure-time behavior, in: Michael Ermath (ed.), America and the shaping of German society 1945–1955, Oxford 1993, 132–52.

  49. 49.

    Michael Wildt, Am Beginn der Konsumgesellschaft: Mangelerfahrung, Lebenshaltung, Wohlstand in Westdeutschland in den 50er Jahren, Hamburg 1994, 299.

  50. 50.

    See also Norbert Kosicki, Die Kinder von Marx und Coca Cola. Kulturelle Streiflichter aus dem Revier der 60er Jahre, Herne 1990.

  51. 51.

    Wildt, Am Beginn (see above, note 49), 267. To Ludwig Erhard’s way of thinking, the connection between the consumer society and democracy was as good as constitutive; see Ludwig Erhard, Wohlstand für alle, Düsseldorf 1957. However, another link was seen—namely that a generation of young people manipulated by the economy in consumption matters was also going to be susceptible to political manipulation. See Detlef Siegfried, Vom Teenager zur Pop-Revolution. Politisierungstendenzen in der westdeutschen Jugendkultur 1959–1968, in: Schildt/Siegfried/Lammers (eds), Dynamische Zeiten (see note 5), 582–623, esp. 593.

  52. 52.

    On the economic-history and social-history background, see Werner Abelshauser, Die langen fünfziger Jahre. Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949–1966, Düsseldorf 1987; Gerd Hardach, Krise und Reform der sozialen Marktwirtschaft. Grundzüge der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Bundesrepublik der 50er und 60er Jahre, in: Schildt/Siegfried/Lammers (eds), Dynamische Zeiten (cf. note 5), 197–217.

  53. 53.

    Hardach, Krise und Reform (see note 52). For detailed statistical evidence, see Statistisches Bundesamt Württemberg (ed.), Bevölkerung und Wirtschaft 1872–1972, Stuttgart 1972, 177, 254 f.

  54. 54.

    Michael Jungblut, Die Reichen und die Superreichen in Deutschland, Hamburg 1971, 15. On youth culture, see Kaspar Maase, Grenzenloses Vergnügen. Der Aufstieg der Massenkultur 1850–1970, Frankfurt 1997; Kaspar Maase, Bravo Amerika—Erkundungen zur Jugendkultur der Bundesrepublik in den fünfziger Jahren, Hamburg 1992.

  55. 55.

    See Jost Hermand, Die Kultur der Bundesrepublik 1965–1985, Frankfurt 1990; also Jost Hermand, Pop International. Eine kritische Analyse, Frankfurt 1971.

  56. 56.

    See Ute Kätzel, Die 68erinnen. Porträt einer rebellischen Frauengeneration, Hamburg 2002, 175 f.

  57. 57.

    On what follows, see Siegfried J. Schmidt/Brigitte Spiess, Die Kommerzialisierung der Kommunikation. Fernsehwerbung und sozialer Wandel, 1956–1969, Frankfurt a.M. 1996.

  58. 58.

    Angela Schulze, Werbung an der Grenze. Provokation in der Plakatwerbung der 50er bis 90er Jahre, Wiesbaden 1999.

  59. 59.

    See, incidentally, the interesting female shift of perspective to the interior life of communes in Kätzel, Die 68erinnen (see above, note 56).

  60. 60.

    Kurzlechner, Die Unternehmer (see above, note 18), 153 ff. Actually, in the debate about advertising, this topic goes back quite some way. There was talk in the very early 1950s of the ‘side benefits’ of products. In this connection, see also Hans Domitzlaff, Die Gewinnung des öffentlichen Vertrauens. Ein Lehrbuch der Markentechnik, Hamburg 1951.

  61. 61.

    Jungblut, Die Reichen (see above, note 54), 16.

  62. 62.

    On the connection between protest culture and lifestyle, we know that demonstrators often remembered exactly what they were wearing at the time. See Kraushaar, ‘1968’ als Mythos (see above, note 46), 10.

  63. 63.

    It is no accident that in West Germany the 1960s saw the start of the soaring careers of consultants and publicity experts, people who took advantage of the insecurity they were able to inspire among firms facing major structural changes on the economic front and unpredictable consumer conduct; see Dirk Reinhardt, Von der Reklame zum Marketing. Geschichte der Wirtschaftswerbung in Deutschland, Berlin 1993.

  64. 64.

    See also the introduction Kursorische Überlegungen zu einer Werbegeschichte als Mentalitätsgeschichte, in: Rainer Gries/Volker Ilgen/Dirk Schindelbeck, Ins Gehirn der Masse kriechen! ‘Werbung und Mentalitätsgeschichte, Darmstadt 1995, 1–29. Incidentally, there is an almost eerie correspondence here between the perception of left-wing consumption-criticism and many authoritarian attitudes; see Siegfried, Vom Teenager (see above, note 52), 586 ff.

  65. 65.

    This says nothing about the motives of those involved. It is based solely on the part played by firms in structural change, which is independent of the motives of individual entrepreneurs or managers.

  66. 66.

    For a general view of this subject, see Gareth P. Dyas/Heinz T. Thanheiser, The emerging European enterprise. Strategy and structure in French and German industry, London 1976.

  67. 67.

    Of crucial importance, no doubt, were the modes of consultancy used in each case; see Alfred Kieser, Moden und Mythen des Organisierens, in: Die Betriebswirtschaft 56 (1996), 21–39.

  68. 68.

    Heinz Hartmann, Authority and organization in German management, Princeton 1959; published in German as Die Unternehmer. Autorität und Organisation, Frankfurt 1968.

  69. 69.

    Kleinschmidt, Das ‘1968’ der Manager (see above, note 9).

  70. 70.

    For an overview, see Christian Kleinschmidt, Der produktive Blick. Wahrnehmung amerikanischer und japanischer Produktions- und Managementmethoden durch deutsche Unternehmer, Berlin 2001.

  71. 71.

    Kleinschmidt, Der produktive Blick (cf. note 70).

  72. 72.

    ACDP, I-093-097/4 Nl, Otto A. Friedrich, Studenten, 1969 (cf. note 32).

  73. 73.

    Dyas and Thanheiser noted in this connection that, while the organizational stance of big businesses in West Germany may have lagged behind the US prototype in the early1970s, it came much closer to it than in France or the UK. Why the trend toward divisionalization began relatively late in the Federal Republic may have been in part because companies that had already taken the first steps in this direction before 1945 were among the principal victims of Allied anti-trust policy in the postwar years.

  74. 74.

    On this tension, see Brückner, Das Selbstbild (see above, note 29), 17, 52 f., esp. (on different management styles) 45 ff.

  75. 75.

    On how entrepreneurial needs profiles were changing, see Barbara Koller, Psychologie und Selektion. Zur Entwicklung persönlichkeitsbezogener Anforderungsprofile an die Wirtschaftselite seit den sechziger Jahren, in: Volker R. Berghahn, Stefan Unger, Dieter Ziegler (eds), Die deutsche Wirtschaftselite im 20. Jahrhundert. Kontinuität und Mentalität, Essen 2003, 337–51.

  76. 76.

    It should be pointed out that waving off the ‘patriarch’ was more about parting from a particular image of the entrepreneur than from any patriarchal reality, which in its pure form had only ever existed in the minds of observers!

  77. 77.

    Stefan Unger, Die ‘Herren aus dem Westen’ in den Jahren 1933 und 1945. Die personellen Konsequenzen der Errichtung und des Untergangs der nationalsozialistischen Diktatur für die Wirtschaftseliten des Ruhrgebiets, in: Abelshauser/Hesse/Plumpe (eds), Wirtschaftsordnung (see above, note 27), 321–37.

  78. 78.

    See also Wilhelm Bartmann/Werner Plumpe, Gebrochene Kontinuitäten? Anmerkungen zu den Vorständen der IG-Farbenindustrie AG Nachfolgegesellschaften 1952–1990, in: Berghahn/Unger/Ziegler (eds), Die deutsche Wirtschaftselite (see above, note 75), 153–86. This normalization in how internal labor markets function has been said in a section of the literature of the social sciences to mark a return to the social exclusivity of the entrepreneur class (one instance being Michael Hartmann, Der Mythos von den Leistungseliten. Spitzenkarrieren und soziale Herkunft in Wirtschaft, Politik, Justiz und Wissenschaft, Frankfurt 2002). However, that was an interpretation, and it is neither empirically convincing nor plausible in terms of organizational sociology. Yet even if from the 1960s onward the business class had once again constituted a closed bourgeois social milieu, what would that say about how it conducted itself? Nothing! Besides, particularly the problem of management recruitment makes clear how widely the various theoretical approaches differ in outcome. Hartmann starts out from Pierre Bourdieu’s dispositional concept, where it is primarily social background that governs the distribution of life opportunities and a particular cast of mind that determines behavior in organizations. On the other hand, it is very obvious that a systems theory approach is preferred here—an approach that sees firms more as social organizations dependent only to a very limited extent upon mental attitudes among their managements and staffs.

  79. 79.

    See also Berghahn, Unternehmer und Politik (see above, note 45); Berghahn/Unger/Ziegler (eds), Die deutsche Wirtschaftselite (see note 75); Erker/Pierenkemper (eds), Deutsche Unternehmer (see above, note 44).

  80. 80.

    See also Hartmann, Der Mythos (see above, note 78).

  81. 81.

    See Hermann Lübbe, Der Nationalsozialismus im deutschen Nachkriegsbewußtsein, in: Historische Zeitschrift 236 (1983), 579–99.

  82. 82.

    For a check on this, see Peter Novick, Nach dem Holocaust. Der Umgang mit dem Massenmord, Munich 2001.

  83. 83.

    For a reference to this, see (among other sources) Wolfgang Zollitsch, Arbeiter zwischen Weltwirtschaftskrise und Nationalsozialismus. Ein Beitrag zur Sozialgeschichte der Jahre 1928 bis 1936, Göttingen 1990, 16.

  84. 84.

    Mark Spoerer points to a clear correlation between export quotas and willingness to participate in compensation funds, but that is not to say that a purely economic calculation is being performed here. There is also evidence that settlement of compensation claims relating to forced labor has led to a marked decline in the commissioning of independent historians to write up the histories of the firms concerned. The relevant wave does indeed appear to have passed its peak. Nevertheless, the reality of communications within firms is probably more complex than it looks from outside. See Mark Spoerer, Moralische Geste oder Angst vor Boykott? Welche Großunternehmen beteiligten sich aus welchen Gründen an der Entschädigung ehemaliger NS-Zwangsarbeiter? In: Perspektiven der Wirtschaftspolitik 3 (2002), 37–48.

  85. 85.

    Herbert, Liberalisierung (see above, note 7), 40 ff.

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Plumpe, W. (2016). 1968 and German Firms: On Marking Out a Field of Research. In: German Economic and Business History in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-51860-6_6

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