Abstract
There is a massive housing shortage in India with 51 million people in 2011 without adequate housing. Although India has a long history of establishing policies, programs, and institutions to cater for housing, in the absence of adequate resources, their impact in ameliorating the shortage has been marginal. This chapter argues that to address India's housing shortage there is a desperate need to assemble various pieces of a jigsaw, which include: (i) inclusion of housing as a constitutional right; (ii) resolving issues of unclear land titles and ensuing claims; (iii) building adequate financial resources for affordable housing programs; (iv) building responsive instruments to facilitate the affordability of housing among all income segments; (v) overcoming market segmentation, which is currently catering to the housing needs of creditworthy clients and is overlooking the growing demand from middle and lower income segments.
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Notes
- 1.
Congestion factor: the ratio of households that are residing in unacceptably congested conditions, from physical and sociocultural viewpoints (i.e. married couples sharing the room with other adults, etc.) was worked out using NSS results—65th round. The number of households requiring a separate dwelling unit on account of congestion comes to 14,986,312 (18.42 per cent congestion rate from NSS was applied to the estimated population on 1.3.2012 based on Census 2011 and intercensus growth rate) (National Building Organisation 2007, p. 354).
- 2.
Obsolescence factor: non-serviceable units (0.99 million as per Census 2011) taken out of housing stock. All bad houses, excluding those that are less than 40 years old (1.39 per cent NSS 65th round results) and all houses aged 80 years or more (1.43 per cent—NSS 65th round results) constitute the obsolescence factor (2.27 million). The estimated figure regarding the same works out at 3.26 million as on 1.3.2012 (National Building Organisation 2007, p. 354).
- 3.
Average size of households = total population/no. of households (MOSPI M. o. 2011, p. 182).
- 4.
Average house area = Area of Living Room + Area of other rooms + Area of Verandas NSS (2002) defines ‘living room’ as “a room with floor area (carpet area) of at least 4 square metres, a height of at least 2 metres from the floor to the highest point in the ceiling and used for living purposes” (p. 14). ‘Other rooms’ included rooms which do not satisfy the specification a living room or were not used for living purposes.
- 5.
In 2011–2012, for rural areas the national poverty line using the Tendulkar methodology is estimated at INR 816 per capita per month and INR 1,000 per capita per month in urban areas. Thus, for a family of five, the all India poverty line in terms of consumption expenditure would amount to about INR 4,080 per month in rural areas and INR 5,000 per month in urban areas. These poverty lines would vary from state to state because of interstate price differentials. (Planning Commission 2013, p. 2).
- 6.
Tier I cities include Mumbai, National Capital Region (NCR) of Delhi, Pune, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Chennai, and Kolkata.
- 7.
The figure is calculated by the author by deriving market rent from the Economic Times newspaper section. Rent is assumed to be 3.5 percent of house cost.
- 8.
EWS: having an annual household income up to INR 100,000 (MHUPA 2013, p. 5).
- 9.
LIG: having an annual household income between INR 100,000 to 200,000 (MHUPA 2013, p. 5).
- 10.
EWS: income up to INR 5,000 per month (MOSPI, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2014, p. 355).
- 11.
LIG: income between INR 5,001–10,000 per month (MOSPI, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2014, p. 355).
- 12.
Following industries are considered to be in the tertiary service sector: i) trade, hotels, and restaurants; transport, storage, and communication; ii) financing, insurance, real estate, and business services; iii) community, social, and personal services; iv) construction.
- 13.
MPCE(URP), that is monthly per capita expenditure—uniform reference period is measured using last 30 days expenditure for all items (Press Information Bureau 2011).
- 14.
MPCE(URP), that is monthly per capita expenditure—uniform reference period is measured using last 30 days expenditure for all items (Press Information Bureau 2011).
- 15.
MPCE(MRP), that is monthly per capita expenditure—mixed reference period is measured using last 365 days data for Category I items (clothing, bedding, footwear, education, medical [institutional], durable goods), and last 30 days for all other items (Press Information Bureau 2011).
- 16.
India has followed development planning based on a series of five years plans since independence. These plans have been formulated and implemented at the national level and comprise major policy directions, capital plans, and budgetary allocations for different economic sectors.
- 17.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister (1947 to 1964) of independent India (refer Fig. 4.13).
- 18.
Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India between 1966 and 1977 and then again in 1980–1984 (refer Fig. 4.13). She was assassinated while in post and the position was then taken over by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who was Prime Minister until 1989. He was later assassinated in 1991 during a period of political unrest in India (Fig. 4.13).
- 19.
Due to the inadequacy of affordable public and private housing for the lower income segments, the informal housing market in India is serving the requirements of the poorer class. There is a severe lack of formal property title in these markets and this is the prime reason for the lower cost of housing in this market. Also, houses in informal markets lack access to basic infrastructure for which clear title is a must. This further brings down the value of the property.
- 20.
Building standards stated under local building bylaws are often higher in quality and do not cater to small land parcels and housing units.
- 21.
Supreme Court is the final court of appeal and the highest judicial forum in India.
- 22.
These instruments include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Art. 11, para. 1), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Art. 27, para. 3), and the non-discrimination provisions found in Article 14, paragraph 2 (h), of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and Article 5 (e) of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Kothari et al. 2006, p. 10).
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Tiwari, P., Rao, J., Day, J. (2016). Housing Development in a Developing India. In: Development Paradigms for Urban Housing in BRICS Countries. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-44610-7_4
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