Catching-Up by Chinese Multinational Firms Using Network Strategies

  • Ying Zhang
Chapter

Abstract

Catching-up is a concept that originally developed in the field of economics. Its central idea is the technological and economic convergence between leading and following countries (Abramovitz, 1986). Freeman (2002) has argued that technology and innovation are central to the catching-up process. When latecomer firms acquire enough time and sufficient productive capability as well as other resources, especially the human capital necessary for new technologies, catching-up can be achieved by leveraging a ‘window of opportunities’ (Perez and Soete, 1988). National catching-up has been studied from two perspectives. The first perspective is based on the growth model of Romer (1990), the theory of national competitive advantage (Porter, 1990) and the notion of national innovation systems (Nelson, 1993). It seeks the factors behind the catching-up, including the development of innovation- enhancing policies and infrastructure as well as increasing financial and human-capital investment. The second perspective uses empirical studies to explain the catching-up factors. For instance, Japan’s catching-up is explained by government regulations, shop-floor innovation and social institutions such as life-long employment and keiretu system (Freeman, 1988). South Korea’s success is a result of the learning path from imitation to innovation, the technological regime that provides a catching-up ladder and the leapfrogging catching-up patterns (Lee and Lim, 2001).

Keywords

Social Capital Strategic Alliance Strategic Management Journal Structural Hole Corporate Entrepreneurship 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Abramovitz, M. (1986). Catching~up, forging ahead and lagging behind. Journal of Economic History, 46(2): 385–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Ahuja, G. (2000a). Collaboration networks, structure holes, and innovation: A longitudinal study. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45(3): 425–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Ahuja, G. (2000b). The duality of collaboration: Inducements and opportunities in the formation of interfirm linkages. Strategic Management Journal, 21(1): 31–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Adler, P. S. and Kwon, S. (2002). Social capital: Prospects for a new concept. The Academy of Management Review, 27(1): 17–40.Google Scholar
  5. Amsden, A. (1989). Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  6. Anand, B.N. and Khanna, T. (2000). The structure of licensing contracts. Journal of Industrial Economics, 48(1): 103–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Anand, V., Manz, C.C. and Glick, W.H. (1998). An organizational memory approach to information management. Academy of Management Review, 23(4): 796–809.Google Scholar
  8. Argote, L., McEvily, B. and Reagans, R. (2003). Managing knowledge in organizations: An integrative framework and review of emerging themes. Management Science, 49(4): 571–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Baldwin, T. T, Bedell, M.D. and Johnson, J.L. (1997). The social fabric of a team-based M.B.A. Program: Network effects on student satisfaction and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 40(6): 1369–1397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Barney, J.B. (1986). Strategic factor markets: Expectations, luck, and business strategy. Management Science, 23(10): 1231–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Beije, P. and Dittrich, K. (2008). Developing a research framework for sectoral modes of open innovation. Paper present at R&D management advanced workshop on Integrating Knowledge-Challenges for R&D Management. 15–16 September, Linkoping, Sweden.Google Scholar
  12. Birkinshaw, J. and Hood, N. 1998. Multinational subsidiary evolution: Capability and charter change in foreign-owned subsidiary companies. Academy of Management Review, 23(4): 773–795.Google Scholar
  13. Block, Z. and MacMillan, I.C. (1993). Corporate Venturing: Creating New Business within the Firm. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
  14. Borgatti, S.P. (1997). Structural holes: Unpacking Burt’s redundancy measures. Connections, 20(1): 35–38.Google Scholar
  15. Borgatti, S.P. and Halgin, D.S. (2011). On network theory. Organization Science, 22(5): 1168–1181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In: J.G. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of Theory and Research for Sociology of Education. New York, NY: Greenwood Press, 241–258.Google Scholar
  17. Brass, D.J. and Burkhardt, M.E. (1993). Potential power and power use: An investigation of structure and behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3): 441–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Brass, D.J., Galaskiewicz, J., Grève, H.R. and Tsai, W. (2004). Taking stock of networks and organizations: A multilevel perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 47(6): 795–817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Brouwer, E. and Kleinknecht, A. (1999). Innovative output and a firm’s propensity to patent: An exploration of CIS micro data. Research Policy, 28(5): 615–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Brown J.S. and Duguid, P. (2000). Mysteries of the region: knowledge dynamics in Silicon Valley, http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ias/annualprogramme/regionalism/docs/Duguid_paper.pdf, Accessed on 12 June 2011.
  21. Brown, T.E., Davidsson, P. and Wiklund, J. (2001). An operationalization of Stevenson’s conceptualization of entrepreneurship as opportunity-based firm behavior. Strategic Management Journal, 22(10): 953–968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Burt, R.S. (1992). Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  23. Burt, R.S. (1997). The contingent value of social capital. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(2): 339–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Burt, R.S. (2001). Structural holes versus network closure as social capital. In N. Lin, K.S. Cook and R.S. Burt (Eds.), Social Capital: Theory andResearch. New York, NY: Aldine: 31–56.Google Scholar
  25. Burt, R.S. (2005). Brokerage and Closure. An Introduction to Social Capital. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  26. Campbell, D.J. (1984). The effects of goal-contingent payment on the performance of a complex task. Personnel Psychology, 37(1): 23–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Cantwell, J. and Mudambi, R. 2005. MNE competence-creating subsidiary mandates. S tra tegic Managemen t journal, 26 (2): 1109–1128.Google Scholar
  28. Cantwell, J. and Piscitello, L. (2000). Accumulating technological competence: Its changing impact on corporate diversification and internationalization. In dus trial and Corporate Cha nge, 9 ( 1): 21–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Carpenter, M., Li, M. and Jiang, H. (2012). Social network research in organizational context: A systematic review of methodological issues and choice. Journal of Management, 38(4): 1328–1361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Chang, H.-J. (1994). The Political Economy of Industrial Policy. New York, NY: St. Martin Press.Google Scholar
  31. Cheng, D.S. and Liu, L.L. (2003). The Truth ofHuawei (Huawei Zhenxiang). Beijing: Contemporary China Publishing House (Dangdai Zhongguo Chubanshe).Google Scholar
  32. Chesbrough, H.W. (2002). Making sense of corporate venture capital. Harvard Business Review, 80(3): 90–99.Google Scholar
  33. Child, J. and Rodrigues, S.B. (2005). The internationalization of Chinese firms: A case for theoretical extension? Management and Organization Review, 1(3): 381–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Coleman, J.S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94: S95-S120.Google Scholar
  35. Coleman, J.S. (1990). Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
  36. Covin, J.G. and Slevin, D.P. (1991). A conceptual model of entrepreneurship as a firm behavior. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 16(1): 7–24.Google Scholar
  37. Das, T.K. and Teng, B. (2000). A resource-based theory of strategic alliances. Journal of Management, 26(1): 31–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1994). Introduction: Entering the field of qualitative research. In N.K. Denzin and Y.W. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage: 1–17.Google Scholar
  39. DiMaggio, P.L. and Powell, W.W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociology Review, 48(2): 147–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Dittrich, K., Duysters, G. and de Man, A.P. (2007). Strategic repositioning by means of alliance networks: The case of IBM. Research Policy, 36: 1496–1511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Dunning, J.H. (2001). The eclectic (OLI) paradigm on international production: Past, present, an d futur e. In tern a ri o n al Jo u rn a I of Eco n o m i cs a n d B u si ness, 8(2): 173–190.Google Scholar
  42. Duysters, G., Jacob, J., Lemmens, C. and Yu, J. (2009). Internationalization and technological catching-up of emerging multinationals: A comparative case study of China’s Hai er group. Industrial and Corporate Change, 18(2): 325–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (1991). Management Research an Introduction. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
  44. Flap, H.D. (1994). No man is an island: The research program of a social capital theory. Paper presented at the World Congress of Sociology, 7–10 July, Bielefeld, Germany.Google Scholar
  45. Flap, H.D. and de Graaf, N.D. (1986). Social capital and attained occupational status. Neth eil a n ds Jo u ma 1 of S o ci o logy, 22 (2): 145–161.Google Scholar
  46. Freeman, C. (1988). Japan: A new national system of innovation? In G. Dosi, C. Freeman, R. Nelson, G. Silverberg and L. Soete (Eds.), Technical Change and Economic Theory. London and New York, NY: Printer: 340–348.Google Scholar
  47. Freeman, C. (2002). Continental, national and sub-national innovation system: Complementarity and economic growth. Research Policy, 31(2): 191–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Frost, T., Birkinshaw, J. and Ensign, P. (2002). Centers of excellence in multinational corporations. Strategic Management Journal, 23(11): 997–1018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Gargiulo, M. (1993). Two-step leverage: Managing constraint in organizational politics. Administration Science Quarterly, 39(1): 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Gargiulo, M. and Benassi, M. (2000). Trapped in your own net? Network cohesion, structural holes, and the adaptation of social capital. Organization Science, 11(2): 183–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Gargiulo, M., Ertug, G. and Galunic, C. (2009). Two faces of control: Network closure and individual performance among knowledge workers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 54(2): 299–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Gerschenkron, A. (1962). Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  53. Ghoshal, S. and Bartlett, C.A. (1990). The multinational corporation as an interorganizational network. Academy of Management Review, 15(4): 603–625.Google Scholar
  54. Gummesson, E. (1991). Qualitative Methods in Management Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
  55. Grabher, G. (1993). The weakness of strong ties: The lock-in of regional development in the Ruhr area. In G. Grabher (Ed.), The Embedded Firm: The Socioeconomics of Industrial Networks. London: Routledge: 255–277.Google Scholar
  56. Granovetter, M.S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6): 1360–1380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Granovetter, M.S. (1974). Getting a Job. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  58. Granovetter, M.S. (1985). Economic action and social structure: A theory of embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology, 91(3): 481–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Granovetter, M. (1992). Economic institutions as social constructions: A framework for analysis. Acta Sociologica, 35(1): 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Greene, P.G., Brush, C.G. and Hart, M.M. (1999). The corporate venture champion: A resource-based approach to role and process. Entrepreneur ship Theory and Practice, 23(3): 103–122.Google Scholar
  61. Griliches, Z. (1990). Patent statistics as economic indicators: A survey. Journal of Economics Literature, 28(4): 1661–1707.Google Scholar
  62. Gulati, R. (1995). Social structure and alliance formation patterns: A longitudinal analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(4): 619–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Gulati, R. and Gargiulo, M. (1999). Where do interorganizational networks come from? American Journal of Sociology, 104(5): 1439–1438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Guth, W.D. and Ginsberg, A. (1990). “Guest editors” introduction: Corporate entrepreneurship. Strategic Management Journal, ll(Summer Special Issue): 5–15.Google Scholar
  65. Hagedoom, J. and Cloodt, M. (2003). Measuring innovative performance: Is there an advantage in using multiple indicators? Research Policy, 32(8): 1365–1379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Hartley, J. (1994). Case studies in organizational research. In C. Cassell and G. Symon (Eds.), Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research: A Practical Guide. London: Sage Publications: 208–229.Google Scholar
  67. Huang, Y. (2010). Debating China’s economic growth: The Beijing consensus or the Washington consensus. Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(2): 31–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Inkpen, A.C. and Tsang, E.W.K. (2005). Social capital networks and transfer knowledge. Academy of Management Review, 30(1): 146–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Jarvenpaa, S. and Leidner, D. (1998). An information company in Mexico: Extending the resource-based view of the firm to a developing country context. Information Systems Research. 9(4): 342–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Johnson, D. (1994). Research Methods in Educational Management. London: Finan-cial Times/Pitman.Google Scholar
  71. Kijkuit, B. and van den Ende, J. (2010). With a little help from our colleagues: A longitudinal study of social networks for innovation. Organization Studies, 31(4): 451–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Kirzner, I. (1973). Competition and Entrepreneurship. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  73. Kondo, R. and Watanabe, C. (2003). The virtuous cycle between institutional elasticity, IT advancement and sustainable growth: Can Japan survive in an information society? Technology in Society, 25: 319–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Koopmans, C. and te Velde, D.W. (2001). Building the energy efficiency gap: Using bottom-up information in a top-down energy demand model. Energy Economics, 23(1): 57–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Koza, M.P. and Lewin, A. (1999). The coevolution of network alliances: A longitudinal analysis of an international professional service network. Organization Science, 10(5): 638–653.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Lall, S. (1983). The theoretical background. In S. Lall (Ed.) The New Multinationals. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
  77. Lean a, C.R. and van Buren, HJ. (1999). Organizational social capital and employment practices. Academy of Management Review, 24(3): 538–555.Google Scholar
  78. Lee, C, Lee, K., and Pennings, J.M. (2001). Internal capabilities, external networks, and performance: A study on technology-based ventures. Strategic Management Journal, 22(6/7): 615–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Lee, K. and Lim, C. (2001). Technological regimes, catching-up and leapfrogging: Findings from the Korean Industries. Research Policy, 30(3): 459–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Lin, N. (1999). Building a network theory of social capital. Connections, 22(1): 28–51.Google Scholar
  81. Lin, N. (2001). Social Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Lin, N., Ensel, W. and Vaughn, J. (1981). Social resources and strength of ties: Structural factors in occupational status attainment. American Sociology Review, 46:393–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Liu, X. (2008). China’s development model: An alternative strategy for technological catch-up. SLPTMD Working Paper Series, Paper No. 020. Oxford: University of Oxford, Department of International Development.Google Scholar
  84. Luostarinen, R. (1979). Internationalization of the Firm. Helsinki: Acta Academiae Oeconomcae Helsinginesis.Google Scholar
  85. Leeds University Business School Report (2009). Rise in Chinese outward foreign direct investment http://www.leeds.ac.uk/news/article/269/rise_in_ chinese_outward_foreign_direct_investment. Accessed on 10 August 2011.
  86. Marinova, S.T., Child, J. and Marinov, M.A. (2011). Evolution of firm-and country-specific advantages and disadvantages in the process of Chinese firm internationalization. Advances in International Management, 24: 235–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Marinova, S.T., Child, J. and Marinov, M.A. (2012). Institutional field for outward foreign direct investment: A theoretical extension? Advances in International Management, 25: 233–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. McPherson, M. (1983). An ecology of affiliation. American Sociological Review, 48: 519–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. McPherson, J.M. and Smith-Lovin, L. (1987). Homophily in voluntary organizations: Status distance and the composition of face-to-face groups. American Sociological Review, 52(2): 370–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. McPherson, J.M., Smith-Lovin, L. and Cook, J.M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27: 415–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. Merriam, S.B. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
  92. Morgan, G. and Smircich, L. (2012). The case for qualitative research. Academy of Management Review, 5(4): 491–500.Google Scholar
  93. Moran, P. (2005). Structural vs. relational embeddedness: Social capital and marginal performance. Strategic Management Journal, 26: 1129–1151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Mu, Q. and Lee, K. (2005). Knowledge diffusion, market segmentation and technological catch-up: The case of the telecommunication industry in China. Research Policy, 34(6): 759–783.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Nahapiet, J. and Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23(2): 242–266.Google Scholar
  96. Nelson, R.R. (1993). National Innovation System: A Comparative Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  97. Ohkawa, K. and Rosovsky H. (1973). Japanese Economic growth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
  98. Peng, M.W. and Luo, Y. (2000). Managerial and firm performance in a transition economy: The nature of a micro-macro link. Academy of Management Journal, 43(3): 486–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Perez, C. and Soete, L. (1988). Catching-up in technology: Entry barriers and windows of opportunity G. Dosi, C. Freeman, R. Nelson, G. Silverberg and L. Soete (Eds.), Technical Change and Economic Theory. London and New York, NY: Printer: 458–479.Google Scholar
  100. Phelps, C.C. (2010). A longitudinal study of the influence of alliance network Structure and composition on firm exploratory innovation. Academy of Management Journal, 53(4): 890–913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. Porter, M.E. (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York, NY: Free Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology.,4 n n ualR eview of S o ci o logy, 24: 1–24.Google Scholar
  103. Pro van, K.G., Fish, A. and Sydow, J. (2007). Interorganizational networks at the network level: A review of the empirical literature on whole networks. Journal of Management, 3: 479–516.Google Scholar
  104. Raub, W. and Weesie, J. (1990). Reputation and efficiency in social interactions: An example of network effects. American Journal of Sociology, 96: 626–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. Reagans, R. and McEvily, B. (2003). Network Structure and Knowledge Transfer: The Effects of Cohesion and Range. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(2): 240–267.Google Scholar
  106. Romer, P. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 98: 71–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. Rothaermel, RT and Deeds, D.L. (2004). Exploration and exploitation alliances in biotechnology: A system of new product development. Strategic Management Journal, 25: 201–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. Sampson, R.C. (2005). Experience effects and collaborative returns in R&D alliances. Strategic Management Journal, 26(11): 1009–1031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. Schilling, M.A. (2009). understanding the alliance data. Strategic Management Journal, 30: 233–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. Schumpeter, J.A. (1934). The Theory of Economic Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  111. Scott, D.W. (1992). Multivariate Density Estimation: Theory Practice, and Visualization. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. Shane, S. and Cable, D. (2002). Network ties, reputation, and the financing of new ventures. Management Science, 48: 364–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. Shipilov, A.V. and Li, S.X. (2008). Can you have your cake and eat it too? Structural holes’ influence on status accumulation and market performance in collaborative networks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53: 73–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. Sparrowe, T. and Liden, R.C. (1997). Process and structure in leader-member exchange. The Academy of Management Review, 22(2): 522–552.Google Scholar
  115. Stevenson, H.H. and Jarillo, J.C. (1990). A paradigm of entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial management. Strategic Management Journal, 11: 17–27.Google Scholar
  116. Teng, B.S. (2007). Corporate entrepreneurship activities through strategic alliances: A resource-based approach toward competitive advantage. Journal of Management Studies, 44(1): 119–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. Toyne, B. and Nigh, D. (1998). A more expansive view of international business. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(6): 863–876.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. Trajtenberg, M. (1987). Patents, citations, and innovations: Tracing the links. Working paper 2457, Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economics Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. Turner, J.H. 1985. Review. American Journal of Sociology, 90: 1336–1338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. Useem, M. and Karabel, J. (1986). Pathways to top corporate management. American Sociological Review, 51(2): 184–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. Uzzi, B. (1996). The source and consequences of embeddedness for the economic performance of organizations: The network effect. American Sociological Review, 61: 674–698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. Uzzi, B. (1997). Social structure and competition in interfirm networks: The paradox of embeddedness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42: 35–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. Walker, G., Kogut, B. and Shan, W. (1997). Social capital, structural holes and the formation of an industry network. Organization Science, 8: 109–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. Wasserman, S. and Faust, K. (1994). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. Watts, D.J. (1999). Networks, dynamics, and the small-world phenomenon. American Journal of Sociology, 105: 493–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. Webb, E.J. (1981). Nonreactive Measures in the Social Sciences. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
  127. Wegner, D.M. (1987). Transactive memory: A contemporary analysis of the group mind. In B. Mullen and G. Goethals (Eds.), Theories of Group behavior. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag: 185–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. Welch, L.S. and Luostarinen, R. (1993). Inward-outward connections in internationalization. Journal of International Marketing, 1(1): 44–57.Google Scholar
  129. Wells, L. Jr. (1983). The Third World Multinationals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
  130. Welsh, J.A. and White, J.R (1981). Converging on characteristics of entrepreneurs. In K.H. Vesper (Ed.), Frontiers of Entrepreneur ship Research. Wellesley, MA: Babson Center for Entrepreneurial Studies: 504–515.Google Scholar
  131. WIPO (2009). http://www.wipo.int/portal/index.html.en. Accessed 12 May 2010.
  132. World Bank (1993). The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  133. Yin, R.K. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
  134. Young, S., Huang, OH. and McDermott, M. (1996). Internationalization and competitive catch-up processes: Case study evidence on Chinese multinational enterprises. Management International Review, 36(4): 295–314.Google Scholar
  135. Zahra, S.A. (1995). Corporate entrepreneurship and company performance: The case of management leveraged buyouts. Journal of Business Venturing, 10: 225–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. Zahra, S.A. (1996). Governance, ownership, and corporate entrepreneurship: The moderating impact of industry technological opportunities. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 1713–1735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  137. Zhang, H.Y. and Van Den Bulcke, D. (1996). International management strategies of Chinese multinational firms. Inj. Child and Y. Lu (Eds.), Management Issues in China: International Enterprises. London: Routledge: 141–164.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Ying Zhang 2014

Authors and Affiliations

  • Ying Zhang

There are no affiliations available

Personalised recommendations