Wilde Women
Abstract
Salomé,2 Oscar Wilde’s lurid, spectacular reimagination of the New Testament tale of the death of John the Baptist, is conceived of less in its own terms than by way of its outward parameters: aestheticism, decadence, and, above all, shock. The play, rife with sex, gore, and religious blasphemy, was censored in England for 39 years to shield the public from what was viewed as its degenerate influence. Yet there is much more to the work than has been seen. The densest, least accessible, and most historically, intertextually, and contextually based of Wilde’s works by far, Salomé remains relatively underexplored by scholars. Similarly, it is—as may, unfortunately, be apparent from nearly any production—little understood by theater artists today.
Keywords
Jewish Woman Female Climax Tyrian Purple Dung Heap World Zionist OrganizationPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Notes
- 3.William Tydeman and Steven Price, Wilde: Salomé (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 174.Google Scholar
- 4.Petra Dierkes-Thrun, “‘The Brutal Music and the Delicate Text’? The Aesthetic Relationship between Wilde’s and Strauss’s Salomé Reconsidered,” Modern Language Quarterly 69, no. 3 (2008): 370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 6.See Philip E. Smith and Michael S. Helfand, Oscar Wilde’s Oxford Notebooks: A Portrait of Mind in the Making (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
- Julia Prewitt Brown, Cosmopolitan Criticism: Oscar Wilde’s Philosophy of Art (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1997).Google Scholar
- 8.Kerry Powell, Acting Wilde: Victorian Sexuality, Theatre, and Oscar Wilde (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 58.Google Scholar
- 11.Alan Sinfield, The Wilde Century: Effeminacy, Oscar Wilde, and the Queer Moment (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994).Google Scholar
- 12.For encyclopedic histories of Wilde criticism, see Ian Small, Oscar Wilde Revalued: An Essay on New Materials and Methods of Research (Greensboro, NC: ELT Press, 1993).Google Scholar
- Ian Small, Oscar Wilde: Recent Research (Greensboro, NC: ELT Press, 2000); and Josephine M. Guy and Ian Small, Studying Oscar Wilde: History, Criticism, Myth (Greensboro, NC: ELT Press, 2006).Google Scholar
- Josephine M. Guy and Ian Small, Studying Oscar Wilde: History, Criticism, Myth (Greensboro, NC: ELT Press, 2006).Google Scholar
- 13.Quoted in Richard Ellmann, Oscar Wilde (New York: Vintage, 1998), 40.Google Scholar
- 14.Matthew Hofer and Gary Scharnhorst, Oscar Wilde in America: The Interviews (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 158.Google Scholar
- 15.Marjorie Garber, Vested Interests: Cross Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Routledge 1997), 341.Google Scholar
- 21.Richard A. Kaye, “Salomé’s Lost Childhood: Wilde’s Daughter of Sodom, Jugendstil Culture, and the Queer Afterlife of a Decadent Myth,” in The Nineteenth-Century Child and Consumer Culture, ed. Dennis Denisoff (Ashgate, Hampshire: Aldershot, 2008), 122.Google Scholar
- For much more on the history of images of Salomé, as well as on confusions of Salomé with the biblical figure of Judith, see Bram Dijkstra, Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil in Fin-de-siècle Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).Google Scholar
- 22.Gustave Flaubert, Three Tales, trans. A. J. Krailsheimer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 82.Google Scholar
- 26.“Abolie, et son aile aifreuse dans les larmes / Du bassin, aboli, qui mire les alarmes, / Des ors nus fustigeant l’espace cramoisi, / Une Aurore a, plumage heraldique, choisi/ Notre tour cineraire et sacrificatrice, / Lourde tombe qua fuie un bel oiseau, caprice/ Solitaire d’aurore au vain plumage noir …/ Ah! des pays dechus et tristes le manoir! / Pas de clapotement! L’eau morne se resigne, / Que ne visite plus la plume nile cygne.” Quoted in David Lenson, “Introduction to a translation of Hérodiade,” Massachusetts Review 30, no. 4 (1989): 57–78; translation by Lenson, 579.Google Scholar
- 27.See Marvin Carlson, Theories of the Theatre (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 288.Google Scholar
- 28.Martin Puchner, Stage Fright: Modernism, Anti-Theatricality, and Drama (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2002), 59.Google Scholar
- 29.Chad Bennett, “Oscar Wildes Salomé: Décor, Des Corps, Desire,” ELH (English Literary History) 77 (2010): 297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 30.Joseph Bristow, “Biographies: Oscar Wilde—the Man, the Life, the Legend,” in Oscar Wilde Studies, ed. Frederick S. Roden (Houndmills, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 10.Google Scholar
- 31.See Katherine Worth, Oscar Wilde (London: Macmillan, 1983), 8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 32.See Chris Snodgrass, “Wildes Salomé: Turning the Monstrous Beast’ into a Tragic Hero,” in Oscar Wilde: The Man, His Writings, and His World, ed. Robert N. Keane (New York: AMS Press, 2000), 181–96.Google Scholar
- 33.Joris-Karl Huysmans, Against Nature, trans. Robert Baldick (New York: Penguin, 2004), 52.Google Scholar
- 43.Oscar Wilde, Complete Short Fiction, ed. Ian Small (London: Penguin, 2003), 138.Google Scholar
- 45.Kerry Powell, Oscar Wilde and the Theatre of the 1890s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990), 46.Google Scholar
- 47.Wilde, The Importance of Being Earnest and Other Plays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 65.Google Scholar
- 59.Alfred Douglas, “Salomé.: A Critical Review,” The Spirit Lamp 4, no. 1 (May 1893), 26.Google Scholar
- 60.See Yvonne Ivory, “The Trouble with Oskar: Wilde’s Legacy for the Early Homosexual Rights Movement in Germany,” in Oscar Wilde and Modern Culture: The Making of a Legend, ed. Joseph Bristow (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009), 135.Google Scholar
- 62.A. S. Byatt, The Childrens Book (New York: Knopf, 2009), 425.Google Scholar
- 64.Spencer Golub, The Recurrence of Fate: Theatre and Memory in Twentieth-century Russia (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1994), 80.Google Scholar
- 68.Kimie Imura Lawlor, quoted in Xiaoyi Zhou, “Salomé in China: The Aesthetic Art of Dying,” in Wilde Writings: Contextual Conditions, ed. Joseph Bristow (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), 300.Google Scholar
- 72.Joseph Roach, Cities of the Dead: Circum-Atlantic Performance (New York: Columbia, 1996), 2.Google Scholar
- 73.Françoise Meltzer, Salomé and the Dance of Writing: Portraits of Mimesis in Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 46.Google Scholar
- For additional in-depth discussion of Salomé and dance, see Julie Townsend, “Staking Salomé: The Literary Forefathers and Choreographic Daughters of Oscar Wilde’s “Hysterical and Perverted Creature,” in Joseph Bristow, Oscar Wilde and Modern Culture: The Making of a Legend (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008), 154–79.Google Scholar
- 74.Dierkes-Thrun, “Brutal Music,” 373. Dierkes-Thrun’s Salomé’s Modernity: Oscar Wilde and the Aesthetics of Transgression (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2011) was released just as this volume was going press. I regret that timing prevented my considering that study here.Google Scholar
- 75.Charles Bernheimer, “Fetishism and Decadence: Salomé’s Severed Heads,” in Fetishism as Cultural Discourse, ed. Emily Apter and William Pietz (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 63.Google Scholar
- 76.Amanda Fernbach, “Wilde’s Salomé and the Ambiguous Fetish,” Victorian Literature and Culture (2001): 197.Google Scholar
- 78.Joseph Donohue, quoted in Erin Williams Hyman, “Salomé as Bombshell, or How Oscar Wilde Became an Anarchist,” in Oscar Wilde and Modern Culture: The Making of a Legend, ed. Joseph Bristow (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009), 96–109.Google Scholar
- 83.Louis H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 50.Google Scholar
- 85.James Howell, quoted in James Shapiro, Shakespeare and the Jew (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 24.Google Scholar
- 86.Oscar Wilde, “Portia,” in Oscar Wilde: Complete Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 102.Google Scholar
- 87.William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009), I.iii.51; see also III.i.85, 99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 88.Richard Cohen, “The ‘Wandering Jew’ from Medieval Legend to Modern Metaphor,” in The Art of Being Jewish in Modern Times, ed. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett and Jonathan Karp (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 158.Google Scholar
- 93.Susan Sontag, “Mind as Passion,” New York Review of Books (September 25, 1980), 47–52.Google Scholar
- 94.Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism (London: Smith, Elder, 1869), 147.Google Scholar
- 97.See Jacob Neusner, In Quest of the Historical Pharisees (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007).Google Scholar
- 98.See Philip E. Smith, “Wilde and Renan: History and the Semites,” The Oscholars (Summer 2010). http://www.oscholars.com/TO/Specials/Wilde/Smith.htm (accessed September 10, 2009).Google Scholar
- 99.Oscar Wilde, “The Critic as Artist,” in The Artist as Critic: Critical Writings of Oscar Wilde, ed. Richard Ellmann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 407.Google Scholar
- 100.William Brustein, Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 101.Todd M. Endelman, The Jews of Britain: 1656 to 2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 102.Henry Milman, The History of the Jews from the Earliest Period Down to Modern Times (London: John Murray, 1830), 3:264.Google Scholar
- 107.Nadia Valman, The Jewess in Nineteenth-century British Literary Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 108.Quoted in Jeffrey Richards, Sir Henry Irving: A Victorian Actor and His World (London: Hambledon and London: Continuum, 2005), 435. I am grateful to Sharon Weltman for steering me to this information.Google Scholar
- 109.Oscar Wilde, A Florentine Tragedy (London: John Luce, 1908), 21.Google Scholar
- 119.Archibald Henderson, Interpreters of Life and the Modern Spirit (London: Duckworth, 1911), 80–82.Google Scholar
- 120.Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 43.Google Scholar
- 124.Margaret D. Stetz: “‘To Defend the Undefendable’: The Irish Davis Family,” The Oscholars (Summer 2010). http://www.oscholars.com/TO/Specials/Wilde/Stetz.htm (accessed September 10, 2010).Google Scholar
- 125.Christopher S. Nassaar, “The Problem of the Jewish Manager in The Picture of Dorian Gray,” The Oscholars (Summer 2010). http://www.oscholars.com/TO/ Specials/Wilde/Nassaar.htm (accessed September 10, 2010).Google Scholar
- 127.See Todd Samuel Presner, Muscular Judaism: The Jewish Body and the Politics of Regeneration (New York: Routledge, 2007).Google Scholar
- 128.Sander L. Gilman, “Strauss, the Pervert, and Avant-Garde Opera,” New German Critique 43 (1998): 46.Google Scholar
- 129.Amy Levy, Reuben Sachs: A Sketch (London: Macmillan, 1889), 121.Google Scholar
- 130.Oscar Wilde, “Amy Levy,” The Womans World 3 (1890): 51.Google Scholar
- 131.Israel Finestein, “Jewish Emancipationists in Victorian England,” in Assimilation and Community, the Jews in Nineteenth-century Europe, ed. Jonathan Frankel and Steven J. Zipperstein (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 41.Google Scholar
- 132.See Terry Eagleton, “The Doubleness of Oscar Wilde,” The Wildean: A Journal of Oscar Wilde Studies 9 (2001): 2–9.Google Scholar
- 133.See Meri-Jane Rochelson, A Jew in the Public Arena: The Career of Israel Zangwill (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 2008).Google Scholar
- 135.Todd M. Endelman, “The Frankaus of London: A Study in Radical Assimilation, 1837–1967,” Jewish History 8, no. 2 (1994), 129.Google Scholar
- 145.Quoted in Arnold T. Schwab, “Symons, Gray, and Wilde: A Study in Relationships,” The Wildean: A Journal of Oscar Wilde Studies 36 (2010) offprint: 24n.Google Scholar
- 146.These insults would later incur an even uglier counter-offensive by Raffalovich positioning Wilde, as Irishman, as “‘a blanched or blushed negro,’” after a stereotype racializing the Irish as not only ethnically outré but non-white. Quoted in Frederick S. Roden, “Wilde, Raffalovich, and the Problem of the Other,” in Jewish/Christian/ Queer: Crossroads and Identities, ed. Frederick S. Roden (Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate 2009), 133.Google Scholar
- See also Nicholas Mirzoeff, “Disorientalism: Minority and Visuality in Imperial London,” TDR: The Drama Review 50, no. 2 (2006), 52–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 147.Oscar Wilde, De Profundis (London: Methuen, 1905), 110.Google Scholar
- 148.Long after Wilde’s death, Douglas proved viciously anti-Semitic, publishing endorsement of the deeply injurious Russian faux-Jewish text Protocols of the Elders of Zion in his journal Plain English. While Douglas’s views were likely largely a family inheritance, particularly in relation to his brother’s literally fatal affair with the Jewish-married Lord Rosebery—called by Douglas’s irascible father Lord Queensberry “the Jew nancy boy” and “the Jew pimp,” dragging his son into what was overall “dirty Jewry business”—and could hardly have been Wilde’s fault, it is possible that unpleasant attitudes toward Jews were manifested by Douglas during their years together. Lord Queensberry, quoted in Neil McKenna, The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde: An Intimate Biography (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 316, 255, 254.Google Scholar
- 150.See David Charles Rose, “Wilde and Dreyfus: A Parisian Mythopoeia,” The Oscholars (Summer 2010). http://www.oscholars.com/TO/Specials/Wilde/Dreyfus-Rose.htm.Google Scholar
- 154.See J. Robert Maguire, “Oscar Wilde and the Dreyfus Affair,” Victorian Studies 41, no. 1 (1997): 1–29.Google Scholar
- 155.See Richard Dellamora, Friendship’s Bounds: Democracy and the Novel in Victorian England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 2.Google Scholar
- 163.See Daniel Boyarin et al., “Strange Bedfellows: An Introduction,” in Queer Theory and the Jewish Question, ed. Daniel Boyarin et al. (New York: Columbia University, 2004), 1–18.Google Scholar
- 164.Linda Dowling, Hellenism and Homosexuality in Victorian England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996), 8, 9.Google Scholar
- 165.Sander L. Gilman, “Salomé, Syphilis, and the Modern Jewess,” German Quarterly 66, no. 2 (1993): 196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 169.Bernhardt’s memoirs, quoted in John Stokes, The French Actress and Her English Audience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 140.Google Scholar
- 171.Rumors, often encouraged by Bernhardt herself, yet also apparently somewhat accurate, of a “promiscuous” private life had been at least as responsible for her fame as her talent. Malicious insiders, however, charged that she was frigid—one wisecracked, as Robert Gottlieb relates, that “She doesn’t have a clitoris, she has a corn.” Marie Colombier, quoted in Robert Gottlieb, Sarah: The Life of Sarah Bernhardt (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010), 98.Google Scholar
- 172.See Carole Ockman, “When Is a Jewish Star Just a Star? Interpreting Images of Sarah Bernhardt,” in The Jew in the Text: Modernity and the Construction of Identity, ed. Linda Nochlin and Tamar Garb (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996), 12–39.Google Scholar
- 175.See Sander L. Gilman, The Jew’s Body (New York: Routledge, 1991), 1–37.Google Scholar
- 180.Joseph Bristow, Effeminate England: Homoerotic Writing after 1885 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 45.Google Scholar
- 182.See Janet R. Jakobsen and Ann Pellegrini, “Times like These,” in Secularisms, ed. Janet R. Jakobsen and Ann Pellegrini (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 185.Joseph Roach, The Player’s Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 48.Google Scholar
- 186.Dr. Charles Lasègue, quoted in Janet Beizer, Ventriloquized Bodies: Narratives of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 70.Google Scholar
- 187.Charles McKay, quoted in Rachel Maines, The Technology of Orgasm: “Hysteria,” the Vibrator, and Womens Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2001), 34.Google Scholar
- 188.Fred Nadis, Wonder Shows: Performing Science, Magic, and Religion in America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 88.Google Scholar
- 190.Rhonda Justice-Malloy, “Charcot and the Theatre of Hysteria,” Journal of Popular Culture 28, no. 4 (1995): 136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 191.Georges Didi-Huberman, The Invention of Hysteria: Charcot and the Photographic Archive of the Salpêtrière, trans. Alisa Hartz (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004), xi.Google Scholar
- 192.Victorien Sardou, Théodora: A Drama (London: Bean, Webley, 1885), 86.Google Scholar
- 193.William Winter, Shadows of the Stage (London: Macmillan, 1893), 308.Google Scholar
- 197.Sigmund Freud, Letters of Sigmund Freud, trans. Tania Stern and James Stern (New York: Basic Books, 1960), 179–81.Google Scholar
- Ernest Jones translates a section more chastely: “But how Sarah plays! [E]very inch of that little figure lives and bewitches. Then her flattering and imploring and embracing; it is incredible what postures she can assume and how every limb and every joint acts with her. A curious being; I can imagine that she needn’t be any different in life from on the stage.” Ernest Jones, Sigmund Freud: Life and Work (London: Hogarth Press, 1953), 1:177.Google Scholar
- 199.Alain Corbin, “Backstage,” in A History of Private Life IV: From the Fires of Revolution to the Great War, ed. Michelle Perrot, Georges Duby, Phillipe Aries, and Arthur Goldhammer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 630.Google Scholar
- 200.See Sarah Bernhardt: The Art of High Drama, ed. Carole Ockman and Kenneth Silver (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 156.Google Scholar
- 202.See Susan Hiner, Accessories to Modernity: Fashion and the Feminine in Nineteenth-Century France (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 204.Sigmund Freud, letter to Marie Bonaparte, quoted in Jones, Sigmund Freud: Life and Work (New York: Basic Books, 1957), 2:421.Google Scholar
- 205.See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality (New York: Random House, 1978), 1:112. Rachel Maines argues that a rudimentary vibrational device was present at the Salpêtrière, although there is no evidence that Charcot used it. Maines, Technology, 42.Google Scholar
- 206.See Anthony Kubiak, introduction to Stages of Terror: Terrorism, Ideology, and Coercion as Theatre History (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991), 1–25.Google Scholar
- 208.Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud, Studies on Hysteria (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 7.Google Scholar
- 210.Joris-Karl Huysmans, The Damned, trans. Terry Hale (New York: Penguin, 2002), 12–28.Google Scholar
- 211.Huysmans continues: “and that the Devil exists, the Devil reigns supreme, that the power he enjoyed in the Middle Ages has not been taken from him, for today he is the absolute master of the world, the Omniarch.” Quoted in Robert Baldick, The Life of J.-K. Huysmans (Los Angeles: Daedalus, 2006), 22–27.Google Scholar
- 214.Powell, “The Mesmerizing of Dorian Gray,” Victorian Newsletter 65 (1984): 10.Google Scholar
- 216.Elin Diamond, Unmaking Mimesis: Essays on Feminism and Theatre (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 219.See Franz Meier, “Oscar Wilde and the Myth of the Femme Fatale in Fin-de-siècle Culture,” in The Importance of Reinventing Oscar: Versions of Wilde During the Last 100 Years, ed. Uwe Böker, Richard Corballis, and Julie Hibbard (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2002), 125.Google Scholar
- 220.Kaja Silverman, Male Subjectivity at the Margins (New York: Routledge, 1992), 203.Google Scholar
- 221.See Amanda Clayworth, “The Womans World.: Oscar Wilde as Editor,” Victorian Periodicals Review 30 (1997): 84–101Google Scholar
- Stephanie Green, “Oscar Wilde’s The Woman’s World” Victorian Periodicals Review 30 (1997): 10–20.Google Scholar
- 222.See Jane Marcus, “Salomé: The Jewish Princess Was a New Woman,” Bulletin of the New York Public Library 78 (1974): 9–13.Google Scholar
- 223.See Jan Goldstein, “The Wandering Jew and the Problem of Psychiatric AntiSemitism in Fin-de-siècle France,” Journal of Contemporary History 20 (1985): 536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 224.See Mark S. Micale, Hysterical Men: The Hidden History of Male Nervous Illness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 225.Laurence Senelick, “Master Wood’s Profession: Wilde and the Subculture of Professional Blackmail in the Victorian Theatre,” in Wilde Writings: Contextual Conditions, ed. Joseph Bristow (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), 165.Google Scholar