Abstract
As in the larger field of history of education, revisionism in the 1970s and into the early 1980s profoundly affected the historiography of higher education. The focus of higher education revisionist critique was traditional accounts of nineteenth-century colleges and universities, which Marilyn Tobias argued adhered to an “evolutionary, linear schema” and presented:
merely a descriptive chronicle of official actions, usually from the perspective of the college president. These studies suffer from a paucity of analysis. Their analysis is usually gratuitous as the process of change is neglected, and the relationship between the college and the larger community is ignored … Moreover, our knowledge and understanding of higher learning in nineteenth-century America have too frequently been the result of those who write from the perspective of the ascendancy of the university. These retrospective studies view change as inevitable, assume a uniform intellectual and social matrix, and see university “reformers” as the sole agents of change. Within the darkness-to-light framework of this historical type, nineteenth-century colleges have been used as foils to dramatize the directions of the new universities or have been dismissed as subjects for serious inquiry.
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Notes
Marilyn Tobias in “Conversation: Renegotiating the Historical Narrative: The Case of American Higher Education,” History of Education Quarterly 44 (Winter 2004): 583;
Marilyn Tobias, Old Dartmouth on Trial: The Transformation of the Academic Community in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1982), 4;
Bruce A. Kimball, “Writing the History of Universities: A New Approach?” Minerva 23 (1986): 387, Tobias also quoted on 376;
James Axtell, “The Death of the Liberal Arts College,” History of Education Quarterly 11 (Winter 1971): 341;
David B. Potts, “American Colleges in the Nineteenth Century: From Localism to Denom-inationalism,” History of Education Quarterly 11 (Winter 1971): 363–80;
David B. Potts, “Curriculum and Enrollments: Some Thoughts on Assessing the Popularity of Antebellum Colleges,” History of Higher Education Annual 1 (1981): 88–109;
Natalie A. Naylor, “The Ante-Bellum College Movement: A Reappraisal of Tewks-bury’s Founding of American Colleges and Universities,” History of Education Quarterly 13 (Autumn 1973): 261–74;
Colin B. Burke, American Collegiate Populations: A Test of the Traditional View (New York: New York University Press, 1982).
Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (Athens: University of Georgia Press, c. 1962, 1990);
Laurence R Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965);
Richard Hofstadter and Walter P. Metzger, The Development of Academic Freedom in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955); John R Thelin, “Rudolph Rediscovered,” introductory essay to Rudolph, The American College and University, ix–xxiii;
John R Thelin, A History of American Higher Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), xix; “Retrospective: Laurence R Veysey’s The Emergence of the American University” History of Education Quarterly 45 (Fall 2005): 405–60; Christopher P. Loss, “Introduction” to “Retrospective: Laurence R Veysey’s,” 405
Veysey, quoted in Lester F. Goodchild and Irene Pancner Huk, “The American College History: A Survey of Its Historiographic Schools and Analytic Approaches from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present,” in Higher Education Handbook of Theory and Research, vol. 6, ed. John C. Smart (New York: Agathon, 1990), 201; Rudolph, The American College and University; Thelin, “Rudolph Rediscovered,” xviii–xix; for an in-depth treatment of institutional histories as a genre, see Goodchild and Huk, “The American College History” Institutional histories that defy their poor reputation include:
Paul K. Conkin, Gone with the Ivy: A Biography of Vanderbilt University (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985);
Merle Curti and Vernon Carstensen, The University of Wisconsin: A History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1949);
David B. Potts, Wesleyan University, 1831–1910: Collegiate Enterprise in New England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992).
Thelin, “Rudolph Rediscovered,” xvii, xii–xiii; Rudolph, The American College and University, chaps. 5 (“The Collegiate Way”), 7 (“The Extracurriculum”), 18 (“The Rise of Football”), and 15 (“The Education of Women”); Frederick Rudolph, “Neglect of Students as Historical Tradition,” in The College and the Student, ed. Lawrence E. Dennis and Joseph F. Kauffman (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1966);
John R. Thelin, review of The Emergence of the American University by Laurence R. Veysey, History of Education Quarterly 27 (Winter 1987): 519, 520.
Other important works from this time period that crossed boundaries between sociology and history are: Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, The Academic Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1968);
E. Alden Dunham, Colleges of the Forgotten Americans: A Profile of State Universities and Regional Colleges (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969).
Naylor, “The Ante-Bellum College Movement,” 263; Anne Firor Scott, “The Ever-Widening Circle: The Diffusion of Feminist Values from the Troy Female Seminary, 1822–1872,” History of Education Quarterly 19 (1979): 3–25; Burke, American Collegiate Populations, 212, 5;
David B. Potts, “‘College Enthusiasm!’ as Public Response, 1800–1860,” Harvard Educational Review 47 (February 1977): 38; Potts, “Curriculum and Enrollments.”
See also Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977).
Axtell, “The Death,” 350; Richard Angelo, “The Students at the University of Pennsylvania and the Temple College of Philadelphia, 1873–1906: Some Notes on Schooling, Class and Social Mobility in the Late Nineteenth Century,” History of Education Quarterly 19 (Summer 1979): 179–205;
David F. Allmendinger, Paupers and Scholars: Transformation of Student Life in Nineteenth-Century New England (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975);
Raymond Wolters, The New Negro on Campus: Black College Rebellions of the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975);
James McLachlan, “The Choice of Hercules: American Student Societies in the Early 19th Century,” in The University in Society, vol. 2, ed. Lawrence Stone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 449–94;
Joseph R Demartini, “Student Culture as a Change Agent in American Higher Education: An Illustration From the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Social History 9 (Spring 1976): 526–41;
John S. Whitehead, The Separation of College and State: Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Yale, 1776–1876 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973);
Jurgen Herbst, “The Eighteenth Century Origins of the Split Between Private and Public in Higher Education in the United States,” History of Education Quarterly 15 (Fall 1975): 273–79;
Jurgen Herbst, From Crisis to Crisis: American College Government, 1636–1819 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982);
John S. Whitehead and Jurgen Herbst, “Forum: How to Think About the Dartmouth College Case,” History of Education Quarterly 26 (Fall 1986): 333–49; Potts, “American Colleges,” Burke, American Collegiate Populations, 262.
See, for example, David W. Robson, Educating Republicans: The College in the Era of the American Revolution, 1750–1800 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985);
Bobby Wright, “‘For the Children of Infidels’?: American Indian Education in the Colonial Colleges,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 12 (1988): 1–14;
J. David Hoeveler, Creating the American Mind: Intellect and Politics in the American Colonial Colleges (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002);
John D. Burton, “The Harvard Tutors: The Beginning of an Academic Profession, 1690–1825,” History of Higher Education Annual 16 (1996): 5–20;
John D. Burton, “Collegiate Living and Cambridge Justice: Regulating the Colonial Harvard Student Community in the Eighteenth Century,” History of Higher Education Annual 23 (2004): 83–105.
Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987);
Roger L. Geiger To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986);
Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993);
Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005);
George M. Marsden, The Soul of the American University: From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), vii;
Linda Eisenmann, “Essay Review: Women, Higher Education, and Professionalism: Clarifying the View,” Harvard Educational Review 66 (Winter 1996): 858.
Michael Sugrue, “‘We Desire Our Future Rulers to be Educated Men’: South Carolina College, the Defense of Slavery, and the Development of Secessionist Politics,” History of Higher Education Annual 14 (1994): 39–71;
Amy Thompson McCandless, The Past in the Present: Women’s Higher Education in the Twentieth-Century American South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999);
Carolyn Terry Bashaw, “Stalwart Women’: A Historical Analysis of Deans of Women in the South (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999);
Michael Dennis, Lessons in Progress: State Universities and Progressivism in the New South, 1880–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001);
James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988);
Henry N. Drewry and Humphrey Doermann, Stand and Prosper: Private Black Colleges and Their Students (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001);
E. Culpepper Clark, The Schoolhouse Door: Segregation’s Last Stand at the University of Alabama (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993);
Nadine Cohodas, The Band Played Dixie: Race and the Liberal Conscience at Ole Miss (New York: Free Press, 1997);
Peter Wallenstein, “Black Southerners and Non-Black Universities: Desegregating Higher Education, 1935–1967,” History of Higher Education Annual 19 (1999): 121–48;
Charles S. Padgett, “‘Without Hysteria or Unnecessary Disturbance’: Desegregation at Spring Hill College, Mobile, Alabama, 1948–1954,” History of Education Quarterly 41 (Summer 2001): 167–188;
Doris Malkmus, “Small Towns, Small Sects, and Coeducation in Midwestern Colleges, 1853–1861,” History of Higher Education Annual 22 (2002): 33–65;
Roger L. Geiger, “The Era of MultiPurpose Colleges in American Higher Education, 1850–1890,” History of Higher Education Annual 15 (1995): 51–92;
W Bruce Leslie, Gentlemen and Scholars: College and Community in the “Age of the University,” 1865–1917 (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992);
Hugh Davis Graham and Nancy Diamond, The Rise of American Research Universities: Elites and Challengers in the Postwar Era (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985);
Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women’s Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s (New York: Alfred. E. Knopf, 1984);
Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990); Anderson, The Education of Blacks; Drewry and Doermann, Stand and Prosper;
see also Joy Ann Williamson, “‘Quacks, Quirks, Agitators, and Communists’: Private Black Colleges and the Limits of Institutional Autonomy,” History of Education Quarterly 44 (Winter 2004): 554–76;
Cary Michael Carney, Native American Higher Education in the United States (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1999);
Victoria-Maria MacDonald and Teresa Garcia, “Historical Perspectives on Latino Access to Higher Education, 1848–1900,” in The Majority in the Minority: Expanding the Representation of Latino/a Faculty, Administration and Students in Higher Education (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2003), 15–43;
Philip Gleason, Contending with Modernity: Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995);
Kathleen A Mahoney, “American Catholic Colleges for Women: Historical Origins,” in Catholic Women’s Colleges in America, ed. Tracy Schier and Cynthia Russett (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002); David R. Contosta, “The Philadelphia Story: Life at Immaculata, Rosemont, and Chestnut Hill,” in Catholic Women’s Colleges;
Eldon L. Johnson, “Misconceptions About the Early Land-Grant Colleges,” The Journal of Higher Education 52 (July–August, 1981): 333–51;
Roger L. Geiger, “The Rise and Fall of Useful Knowledge: Higher Education for Science, Agriculture, and the Mechanic Arts, 1850–1875,” History of Higher Education Annual 18 (1998): 47–65;
Jurgen Herbst, “Nineteenth-Century Normal Schools in the United States: A Fresh Look,” History of Education 9, no. 2 (1980): 219–27, quotation on 220;
Jurgen Herbst, And Sadly Teach: Teacher Education and Professionalization in American Culture (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989);
Christine A. Ogren, The American State Normal School: “An Instrument of Great Good” (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
Naylor, “The Ante-Bellum College Movement,” 263; Geraldine Joncich Clifford, “Equally in View”: The University of California, Its Women, and the Schools (Berkeley: Center for Studies in Higher Education and Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1995), 4, 6;
Nancy Beadie and Kim Tolley, eds., Chartered Schools: Two Hundred Years of Independent Academies in the United States, 1727–1925 (New York: Routledge Falmer, 2002); Nancy Beadie, “Internal Improvement: The Structure and Culture of Academy Expansion in New York State in the Antebellum Era, 1820–1860,” in Chartered Schools, 89–115; Margaret A. Nash, “‘A Triumph of Reason’: Female Education in Academies in the New Republic,” in Chartered Schools, 64–86;
Margaret A. Nash, Women’s Education in the United States, 1780–1840 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005);
David F. Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838–1939 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988).
See also William J. Reese, The Origins of the American High School (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
David O. Levine, The American College and the Culture of Aspiration, 1915–1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), chap. 4;
John L. Rury, “The Urban Catholic University in the Early Twentieth Century: DePaul, 1898–1940,” History of Higher Education Annual 17 (1997): 5–32;
Fred W. Beuttler, “Envisioning an Urban University: President David Henry and the Chicago Circle Campus of the University of Illinois, 1955–1975,” History of Higher Education Annual 23 (2004): 107–141; Levine, The American College, chap. 8, quotation on 162;
Steven Brint and Jerome Karabel, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989);
David F. Labaree, “The Rise of the Community College: Markets and the Limits of Educational Opportunity,” chap. 8 in How to Succeed in School Without Really Learning: The Credentials Race in American Education (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 190–222, quotation on 191.
See also John H. Frye, The Vision of the Public Junior College, 1900–1940: Professional Goals and Popular Aspirations (New York: Greenwood, 1992). For a critique of Brint and Karabel’s “historical-sociological” methods,
see Philo A. Hutcheson, “Reconsidering the Community College,” History of Education Quarterly 39 (Fall 1999): 307–20.
Thelin, A History of American Higher Education, xx. Christopher Lucas’ treatment of various types of higher-education institutions is similar to Thelin’s; see Christopher J. Lucas, American Higher Education: A History, 2nd edition (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
Ralph S. Brax, The First Student Movement: Student Activism in the United States During the 1930s (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1981);
Eileen Eagan, Class, Culture and the Classroom: The Student Peace Movement of the 1930s (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981);
Ronald A. Smith, Sports and Freedom: The Rise of Big-Time College Athletics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988);
John R Thelin, Games Colleges Play: Scandal and Reform in Intercollegiate Athletics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994);
Richard Nelson Current, Phi Beta Kappa in American Life: The First Two Hundred Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
Rudolph, The American College and University; Horowitz, Campus Life, chap. 2; Kim Townsend, Manhood at Harvard: William James and Others (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996); Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women, 95–105; Gordon, Gender and Higher Education.
See also John Mack Faragher and Florence Howe, eds., Women and Higher Education in American History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988);
Elizabeth Seymour Esbach, The Higher Education of Women in England and America, 1865–1920 (New York: Garland, 1993);
Ruth Bordin, Women at Michigan: The “Dangerous Experiment,” 1870s to the Present (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
Nash, Women’s Education; Christine A. Ogren, “Where Coeds Were Coeducated: Normal Schools in Wisconsin, 1870–1920,” History of Education Quarterly 35 (Spring 1995): 1–26, quotation on 3; Ogren, The American State Normal School; Kathryn Walbert, “‘Endeavor to Improve Yourself: The Education of White Women in the Antebellum South,” in Chartered Schools, 116–36, quotation on 116–17; McCandless, The Past in the Present;
Linda Eisenmann, Higher Education for Women in Postwar America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 2;
Leslie Miller-Berdal and Susan L. Poulson, eds., Going Coed: Women’s experiences in Formerly Men’s Colleges and Universities, 1950–2000 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2004).
See also Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, ed., Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004);
Rosalind Rosenberg, Changing the Subject: How the Women of Columbia Shaped the Way We Think about Sex and Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).
For further analysis of the historiography of women’s higher education, see Geraldine Joncich Clifford, “‘Shaking Dangerous Questions from the Crease’: Gender and American Higher Education,” Feminist Issues 3 (Fall 1983): 3–62;
Patricia Palmieri, “From Republican Motherhood to Race Suicide: Arguments on the Higher Education of Women in the United States, 1820–1920,” in Educating Men and Women Together: Coeducation in a Changing World, ed. Carol Lasser (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 49–64;
Linda Eisenmann, “Reconsidering a Classic: Assessing the History of Women’s Higher Education a Dozen Years after Barbara Solomon,” Harvard Educational Review 67 (Winter 1997): 689–717.
Horowitz, Campus Life, 51; Cally L. Waite, “The Segregation of Black Students at Oberlin College after Reconstruction,” History of Education Quarterly 41 (Fall 2001): 344–64;
Cally L. Waite, Permission to Remain Among Us: Education for Blacks in Oberlin, Ohio, 1880–1914 (Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 2003);
Linda M. Perkins, “The Racial Integration of the Seven Sister Colleges,” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 19 (Spring 1998): 104–108; Anderson, The Education of Blacks, chap. 7; Richard M. Breaux, “The New Negro Arts and Letters Movement Among Black University Students in the Midwest, 1914–1940,” Great Plains Quarterly (Summer 2004): 147–62; Wallenstein, “Black Southerners”;
Joy Ann Williamson, Black Power on Campus: The University of Illinois, 1965–1975 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003).
See also Linda M. Perkins, “The Impact of the ‘Cult of True Womanhood’ on Education of Black Women,” Journal of Social Issues 39 (1983): 17–28;
Werner Sollers, Caldwell Titcomb, and Thomas A. Underwood, eds., Blacks at Harvard: A Documentary History of African-American Experience at Harvard and Radcliffe (New York: New York University Press, 1993);
Drewry and Doermann, Stand and Prosper; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, c. 1981, 1995);
Elizabeth Higginbotham, Too Much to Ask: Black Women in the Era of Integration (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). On other students of color, see Carney, Native American Higher Education;
Allan W. Austin, From Concentration Camp to Campus: Japanese American Students and World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004);
Gary Y. Okihiro, Storied Lives: Japanese American Students and World War II(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999).
Horowitz, Campus Life, 95; Rury, “The Urban University,” 20; Contosta, “The Philadelphia Story” Kathleen Mahoney documents the struggles of graduates of Jesuit colleges to enter post-graduate programs Harvard during the progressive era; see Kathleen A. Mahoney, Catholic Higher Education in Protestant America: The Jesuits and Harvard in the Age of the University, 1893–1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
See also Sherry Gorelick, City College and the Jewish Poor: Education in New York, 1880–1924 (New York, NY: Schocken Books, 1982).
Horowitz, Campus Life, 68; Jana Nidiffer, “Poor Historiography: The ‘Poorest’ in American Higher Education,” History of Education Quarterly 39 (Fall 1999): 321–36;
Jana Nidiffer and Jeffrey P. Bouman, “‘The University of the Poor’: The University of Michigan’s Transition From Admitting Impoverished Students to Studying Poverty, 1870–1910,” American Educational Research Journal 41 (Spring 2004): 35–67; Herbst, “Nineteenth-Century Normal Schools,” 227; Ogren, The American State Normal School, chaps. 3 and 5;
Christine A. Ogren, “Rethinking the ‘Nontraditional’ Student from a Historical Perspective: State Normal Schools in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” The Journal of Higher Education 74 (November/December 2003): 640–64.
Levine, The American College; Beadie, “‘Internal Improvement,’” 101; Nash, Women’s Education, 99; Labaree, The Making of an American High School; Horowitz, Campus Life, 51; Leslie, Gentlemen and Scholars, 105, 113, 247. See also Richard Mansfield Rose, “Diverging Paths: The Emergence of Secret Societies in Antebellum Georgia Colleges,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 70 (Spring 1986): 47–62;
J. M. Opal, “The Making of the Victorian Campus: Teacher and Student at Amherst College, 1850–1880,” History of Education Quarterly 42 (Fall 2002): 342–67. Intertwined in “the culture of aspiration” was “the culture of professionalism” outlined by Burton Bledstein;
see Burton J. Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism (New York: Norton, 1976).
Levine, The American College, 133; Harold Wechsler, The Qualified Student: A History of Selective College Admissions in America (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1977); Karabel, The Chosen. See also Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream; Labaree, “The Rise of the Community College.”
Levine, The American College, 169; Clyde W. Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894–1928 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 8–9;
Suzanne Mettler, Soldiers to Citizens: The G.I. Bill and the Making of the Greatest Generation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), chaps. 3–4, quotation on 57–58; Sarah Turner and John Bound, “Closing the Gap or Widening the Divide: The Effects of the G.I. Bill and World War II on the Educational Outcomes of Black Americans,” The Journal of Economic History 63 (March 2003); Horowitz, Campus Life, 185;
Daniel A. Clark, “‘The Two Joes Meet-Joe College, Joe Veteran’: The G.I. Bill, College Education, and Postwar American Culture,” History of Education Quarterly 38 (Summer 1998): 165–89;
David Karen, “The Politics of Class, Race, and Gender: Access to Higher Education in the United States, 1960–1986,” American Journal of Education 99 (February 1991): 208–237, quotation on 228.
See also Dongbin Kim and John L. Rury, “The Changing Profile of College Access: The Truman Commission and Enrollment Patters in the Postwar Era,” History of Education Quarterly 47 (August 2007): 302–327. Mettler’s main concern is not the types of institution the veterans attended, but rather the effect of the G.I. Bill on their sense of citizenship. Her “central finding … is that the G.I. Bill’s education and training provisions had an overwhelmingly positive effect on male veterans’ civic involvement,” and “the program’s effects transcended the impact of education itself.” Mettler, Soldiers to Citizens, 9.
Rudolph, The American College and University, chap. 6; Jurgen Herbst, “The Yale Report of 1828,” International Journal of the Classical Tradition 11 (Fall 2004): 213–31, quotation on 222;
Jurgen Herbst, “American Higher Education in the Age of the College,” History of Universities 7 (1988): 37–59; Beadie and Tolley, eds., Chartered Schools; Nash, Women’s Education; Ogren, The American State Normal School, chaps. 1 and 3; Labaree, The Making of an American High School; Johnson, “Misconceptions About the Early Land-Grant Colleges”; Geiger, “The Rise and Fall of Useful Knowledge”; Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, chaps. 2 and 7; Drewry and Doermann, Stand and Prosper, chap. 5;
see also Fred Williams, “The Second Morrill Act and Jim Crow Politics: Land-Grant Education at Arkansas AM&N College, 1890–1927,” History of Higher Education Annual 18 (1998): 81–92. For more on science education for female academy students and the larger curricular context,
see Kim Tolley, The Science Education of American Girls: A Historical Perspective (New York: Routledge Falmer, 2003).
Geiger, “The Era of Multi-Purpose Colleges”; Leslie, Gentlemen and Scholars, 80, 178; Dennis, Lessons in Progress, 6; Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women, chap. 6; Kathleen A. Mahoney and Caroline Winterer, “The Problem of the Past in the Modern University: Catholics and Classicists, 1860–1900,” History of Education Quarterly 42 (Winter 2002): 517–43, quotation on 522; Gleason, Contending With Modernity; Mahoney, Catholic Higher Education;
Julie A. Reuben, The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Marsden, The Soul of the American University.
David F. Labaree, “Mutual Subversion: A Short History of the Liberal Arts and the Professional in American Higher Education,” History of Education Quarterly 46 (Spring 2006): 1–15, quotation on 1; Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State, 8; Brint and Karabel, The Diverted Dream; see also Levine, The American College, chap. 8; Labaree, “The Rise of the Community College.” For more on vocationalism in the second half of the twentieth century,
see Marvin Lazerson, “The Disappointments of Success: Higher Education After World War II,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 559 (September 1998): 64–76. Katherine Chaddock Reynolds’ look at the roots of “Great Books” movement that began in the early twentieth century presents one small example of an effort to expand access to high status knowledge; she explains that it “represented attempts to bring liberal education to youths and adults of many social and economic classes, in essence to democratize a type of learning that had been perceived as accessible only to the intellectually elite.”
See Katherine Chaddock Reynolds, “A Canon of Democratic Intent: Reinterpreting the Roots of the Great Books Movement,” History of Higher Education Annual 22 (2002): 5–32, quotation on 7.
Larry Cuban, How Scholars Trumped Teachers: Change Without Reform in University Curriculum, Teaching, and Research, 1890–1990 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999), 9; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, 201, 234, 333; Jencks and Riesman, The Academic Revolution;
Clark Kerr, “The Idea of Multiversity,” in The Uses of the University, 5th ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 1–34, quotation on 29.
Veysey, The Emergence; Marsden, The Soul of the American University; Reuben, The Making of the Modern University; Geiger, To Advance Knowledge, quotation on 77. On religion and scientific inquiry, see also Linda Eisenmann, “Reclaiming Religion: New Historiographical Challenges in the Relationship of Religion and American Higher Education,” History of Education Quarterly 39 (Fall 1999): 295–306.
Richard M. Freeland, Academias Golden Age: Universities in Massachusetts, 1945–1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 70; Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, xix;
Rebecca S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 9;
Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Graham and Diamond, The Rise of American Research Universities, 4;
Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
See also Christopher Newfield, Ivy and Industry: Business and the Making of the American University, 1880–1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003); Beuttler, “Envisioning an Urban University”;
Philo A. Hutcheson, A Professional Professoriate: Unionization, Bureaucratization, and the AAUP (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2000). Research on women in higher education has contributed monographs on faculty careers;
see Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982);
Margaret W. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940–1972 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995);
Geraldine Joncich Clifford, ed., Lone Voyagers: Academic Women in Coeducational Institutions, 1870–1937 (New York: Feminist, 1989);
Patricia Ann Palmieri, In Adamless Eden: The Community of Women Faculty at Wellesley (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).
Jana Nidiffer and Timothy Reese Cain, “Elder Brothers of the University: Early Vice Presidents the Late Nineteenth-Century Research Universities,” History of Education Quarterly 44 (Winter 2004): 487–523; Bashaw, “Stalwart Women”;
Jana Nidiffer, Pioneering Deans of Women: More Than Wise and Pious Matrons (New York: Teachers College Press, 2000); Hutcheson, A Professional Professoriate;
Edwin D. Duryea, The Academic Corporation: A History of College and University Governing Boards (New York: Falmer, 2000);
Hugh Hawkins, ed., The Emerging University and Industrial America (Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger, 1985), ix–x; Newfield, Ivy and Industry, 82. See also Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State.
Thelin, review of The Emergence of the American University, 523. See also Paul H. Mattingly, “Structures Over Time: Institutional History,” in Historical Inquiry in Education: A Research Agenda, ed. John Hardin Best (Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association, 1983), 34–55.
John Aubrey Douglass, The California Idea in American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 7–8, 11, 15. On the Master Plan,
see also Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999), book 2. Economists Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz have turned to the history of state support for higher education between 1890 and 1940 in order to better understand current variations among states. They conclude, “The major state-level factors we identify that encouraged support to public higher education are a high level of wealth broadly distributed, the presence of business and commercial interests having large, unified, and concentrated demands for practical research, a late year of statehood, and a low early presence of private institutions. Differences across states in the relative role of the public sector in higher education that emerged during 1890–1940 persist today, despite the increased national scope of the market for higher education.”
Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, “The Origins of State-Level Differences in the Public Provision of Higher Education: 1890–1940,” The American Economic Review 88 (May 1998): 308;
see also Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, “The Shaping of Higher Education: The Formative Years in the United States, 1890–1940,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 13 (Winter 1999): 37–62.
Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge; Lowen, Creating the Cold War University; Graham and Diamond, The Rise of American Research Universities, chaps. 2 and 4; Freeland, Academias Golden Age, 70; Robert C. Serow, “Policy as Symbol: Title II of the 1944 G.I. Bill,” The Review of Higher Education 27 (Summer 2004): 481–99, quotation on 493;
J. M. Stephen Peeps, “A B.A. For the G.I … Why?” History of Education Quarterly 24 (Winter 1984): 513–25;
Julie A. Reuben, “Merit, Mission, and Minority Students: The History of Debate Over Special Admission Programs,” in A Faithful Mirror: Reflections on the College Board and Education in America, ed. Michael C. Johanek (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 2001), 195–243, quotation on 197. On financial aid and affirmative action,
see also Rupert Wilkinson, Aiding Students, Buying Students: Financial Aid in America (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2005); Lemann, The Big Test, book 3.
Geiger, To Advance Knowledge, 167–73; Lowen, Creating the Cold War University, chap. 7; Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge, 6; Marybeth Gassman, “W E. B. Du Bois and Charles S. Johnson: Differing Views on the Role of Philanthropy in Higher Education,” History of Education Quarterly 42 (Winter 2002): 493–516, quotations on 494, 496;
Eric Anderson and Alfred A. Moss, Dangerous Donations: Northern Philanthropy and Southern Black Education, 1902–1930 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 11. See also Anderson, The Education of Blacks, chap. 7;
Katrina M. Sanders, “Intelligent and Effective Direction”: The Fisk University Race Relations Institute and the Struggle for Civil Rights, 1944–1969 (New York: Peter Lang, 2005). After philanthropic support from northern industrialists began to wane in the 1930s, the presidents of several private black colleges worked together to establish the United Negro College Fund in 1944 to raise and distribute donations to their institutions; see Drewry and Doermann, Stand and Prosper, chap. 6; Marybeth Gassman and Edward Epstein, “Creating an Image for Black Higher Education: A Visual Examination of the United Negro College Fund’s Publicity, 1944–1960,” Educational Foundations (Spring 2004): 41–61;
Marybeth Gassman, “Rhetoric vs. Reality: The Fundraising Messages of the United Negro College Fund in the Immediate Aftermath of the Brown Decision,” History of Education Quarterly 44 (Spring 2004): 70–94. Andrea Walton argues that definitions of philanthropy must be broadened to include women’s efforts;
see Andrea Walton, ed., Women and Philanthropy in Education (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005).
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Ogren, C.A. (2008). Sites, Students, Scholarship, and Structures: The Historiography of American Higher Education in the Post-Revisionist Era. In: Reese, W.J., Rury, J.L. (eds) Rethinking the History of American Education. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230610460_8
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