The Second World War: 1939–45

See David Kaiser, Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War, Princeton, NJ, 1980.Google Scholar

See S. Marks, The Illusion of Peace: 1918–1933, New York, 1976.Google Scholar

See J.M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, New York, 1920, which did much to create the legend of the ‘Carthaginian Peace’ imposed on the Germans at Versailles. See also M. Trachtenberg, Reparations in World Politics, New York, 1980.Google Scholar

See ‘Great Men in History’, Chapter 7, Morris R. Cohen, The Meaning of Human History, New York, 1947.Google Scholar

Before 1938 the term was commonly understood to mean a necessary and desirable relation between nations. See Andrew J. Crozier, Appeasement and Germany’s Last Bid for Colonies, London, 1988.Google Scholar

See Anthony Read and David Fisher, The Deadly Embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi—Soviet Pact 1939–1941, London, 1988. In 1940 the USSR forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Finland, attacked in the winter of 1939, offered heroic resistance, but by March 1940 was forced to accept Russia’s terms. Because it had violated the Covenant, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations on 14 December 1939.Google Scholar

See Lieutenant Commander P.K. Kemp, RN (Ret.), Key to Victory, Boston, 1958, p. 26.Google Scholar

See H.G. Dahms, Die Geschichte des zweiten Weltkrieges, Munich, 1983, p. 211, note 64. German civilian deaths from Allied bombing were in the region of 570,000, p. 621, note 15.Google Scholar

See A. Clark, Barbarossa, The Russo-German Conflict, 1941–1945, London 1965.Google Scholar

See W.H. Baldwin, Battles Lost and Won, New York, 1966, pp. 112–13.Google Scholar

See John Toland, Infamy, Pearl Harbor and its Aftermath, New York, 1982. Toland argues that Roosevelt and his top advisers knew about the planned attack but remained silent in order to draw the US into the war. Major damage was done to US aircraft and battleships, but the fleet’s aircraft carriers were out of harbour. More recent writers have suggested that code-breaking was involved. Washington wished to conceal the fact that it had already broken the Japanese codes.Google Scholar

Although none of the Japanese victories had a crippling effect on overall allied strategy. See C. Bateson, The War with Japan, East Lancing, Mich., 1968.Google Scholar

See Arno J. Mayer, Why did the Heavens Not Darken? The Final Solution in History, New York, 1989. Also Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust and German Identity, Cambridge, Mass., 1989. Also Lucy S. Dawidowicz, ‘Perversions of the Holocaust’, Commentary, October 1989.Google Scholar

Said Jackson: ‘The wrongs which we seek to condemn and punish have been so calculated, so malignant and so devastating, that civilization cannot tolerate their being ignored because it cannot survive their being repeated.’ Robert H. Jackson, ‘Opening Address’, in Trial of German War Criminals, Senate Doc. no. 129, 79th Cong., 1st sess., Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1946, p. 1. Twelve of the accused at Nuremberg, and seven in Japan, were sentenced to death by hanging.Google Scholar

See Ann and John Tusa, The Nuremberg Trial, New York, 1984; also, R.H. Minear, Victor’s Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, Princeton, NJ, 1971.Google Scholar

The author of America’s policy of containment was the US ambassador to the USSR, George F. Kennan. See his article signed ‘X’ in Foreign Affairs, July 1947.Google Scholar

Proposed in 1947 by US Secretary of State, General George Marshall (1880–1959), it provided western European countries (the aid was rejected by the Soviet bloc; Poland was ordered by the Kremlin to withdraw its application for aid) with $13.5 billion of economic and financial assistance. Introduced in 1948, Marshall Aid was discontinued in 1952. See Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan, Cambridge, 1987.Google Scholar

See Ann and John Tusa, The Berlin Blockade, London, 1988.Google Scholar

On 20 May 1989, India became the first third world nation to admit developing an intermediate-range ballistic missile.Google Scholar