The New International Policing in Theory

Anthony Giddens, The Nation State and Violence (Cambridge: Polity, 1987), p121.Google Scholar

See: Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Militaty Relations (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press, 1957) for an exposi-tion on how soldiers are intended to be the state’s agents of external force.Google Scholar

Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), Chapter Three ‘The Rules of War’ outlines some of these extraordinary principles.Google Scholar

See: Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (London: The Free Press of Glencoe Collier-Macmillan Ltd., 1960).Google Scholar

For example, the Chapter on ‘Managing Risks’ — particularly the section on ’Operational Risks’ — in the US Department of Defence, Quadrennial Defense Review Report, 30 September 2001, as found at http://www.defenselink.mil/ pubs/qdr2001.pdf, accessed on 13/10/2004, promotes an aggressive power projection model as the preferred method for lessening operational risks to US military personnel. This is further discussed in Mockaitis, Thomas R., Civil Military Cooperation in Peace Operations: The Case of Kosovo (Carlisle Barracks: SSI, October 2004), pp15–16.Google Scholar

Naomi J. Weinberger, ‘Peacekeeping Operations in Lebanon’, Middle East Journal, 37 (3), Summer 1983, p347.Google Scholar

For an analysis of the variety of force protection postures utilised by NATO member states in their deployments to Bosnia (which highlights the differ-ences between and even within national units), see: Walter E. Kretchik, ’Armed for Peace: National Attitudes and Force Protection Posture in Bosnia 1995–2001’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 15 (2), Autumn 2004, pp20–37. Kretchik in particular picks up on a European-American divide, and notes how the British, in particular, believed in a minimal force protection pos-ture (to the extent that they were labelled ‘cavalier’ (p25) by some Canadian interviewees!).Google Scholar

Clive Emsley, ‘The Origins of the Modern Police’, History Today, 49 (4), April 1999, pp1–8.Google Scholar

Emilio Santoro, ‘Crime and punishment’, Political Concepts, eds. Richard Bellamy and Richard Mason (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), p70.Google Scholar

See: Chapter Two, John Kleinig, The Ethics of Policing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), for an outline of these kinds of models.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

David Bayley, Police for the Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p30.Google Scholar

Seumas Miller, John Blackler and Andrew Alexander, Police Ethics (St Leonards NSW: Allen and Unwin, 1997), pp38–9.Google Scholar

David H. Bayley, ‘The Contemporary Practices of Policing: A Comparative View’, Civilian Police and Multinational Peacekeeping — A Workshop Series: A Role for Democratic Policing, National Institute of Justice (Washington DC: US Department of Justice, 1999), p3.Google Scholar

Mark Malan, ‘Peacebuilding in Southern Africa: Police Reform in Mozambique and South Africa’, Peacebuilding and Police Reform, eds. Tor Tanke Holm and Espen Barth Eide (London and Portland OR: Frank Cass, 2000), p181.Google Scholar

Stephen P. Lab, ‘Introduction: Community Policing and Crime Prevention’, International Perspectives on Community Policing and Crime Prevention, eds. Stephen P. Lab and Dilip K. Das (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003), pxvi — he also says that ‘trying to define community policing is like trying to hold mercury in your hand’.Google Scholar

Steven P. Lab, ‘Community Policing as Crime Prevention in the US’, Inter-national Perspectives on Community Policing and Crime Prevention, eds. Stephen P. Lab and Dilip K. Das (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003), pp5–6.Google Scholar

Robert Reiner, The Politics of the Police 2^nd edn (New York and London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), p256.Google Scholar

Michael Dziedzic and Colonel Christine Stark, ‘Bridging the Security Gap: The Role of the Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units (CoESPU) in Contemporary Peace Operations’, USIPeace Brie fing, June 2006, as found at http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0616_coespu.html, accessed on 8/10/2007.Google Scholar

Michael Dziedzic and Colonel Christine Stark, ‘Bridging the Security Gap: The Role of the Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units (CoESPU) in Contemporary Peace Operations’, USIPeace Brie fing, June 2006, as found at http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0616_coespu.html, accessed on 8/10/2007.Google Scholar

Joshua G. Smith, Victoria K. Holt and William J. Durch, ‘From Timor-Leste to Darfur: New Initiatives for Enhancing UN Civilian Policing Capacity’, The Henry L. Stimson Center Issue Brief August 2007, p3.Google Scholar

Michael Dziedzic and Colonel Christine Stark, ‘Bridging the Security Gap: The Role of the Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units (CoESPU) in Contemporary Peace Operations’, USIPeace Briefing, June 2006, as found at http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0616_coespu.html, accessed on 8/10/2007.Google Scholar

Additional forces similar in nature to the French and Italian units outlined here include the Spanish Guardia Civil, the Netherlands’ Royal Constabulary (Marechausee), the Argentinian National Gendarmerie, and even, according to Robert Perito, Where is the Lone Ranger When We Need Him? America’s Search for a Post-Conflict Stability Force (Washington: USIP, 2004), p51 the Texas rangers.Google Scholar

The term ‘para-military’ can be associated with the illegitimate use of force by non-state actors. Indeed some scholars, such as Alice Hills, ‘International Peace Support Operations and CIVPOL: Should There Be a Permanent Global Gendarmerie?’, International Peacekeeping, 5 (3), Autumn 1998, pp35–7, argues that this term should not be used to refer to such constabu-lary forces. However, I find the term constabulary too broad and also open to misuse — para-military to me brings across the fact that these police forces are much more aligned to military models and therefore is more descriptive (as long as this term is recognised as being one that is associated with other possible connotations).Google Scholar

P.A.J. Waddington, ‘Armed and Unarmed Policing’, Policing Across the World: Issues for the Twenty-First Century, ed. R.I. Mawby (London: University College London Press, 1999), p154.Google Scholar

Robert Perito, Where is the Lone Ranger When We Need Him? America’s Search for a Post-Conflict Stability Force (Washington: USIP, 2004), p39.Google Scholar

Robert Perito, Where is the Lone Ranger When We Need Him? America’s Search for a Post-Conflict Stability Force (Washington: USIP, 2004), p5.Google Scholar

Janet B.L. Chan with Chris Devery and Sally Doran, Fair Cop: Learning the Art of Policing (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), p36.Google Scholar

Robert Reiner, The Politics of the Police, 2^nd edn (Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), p111.Google Scholar

David H. Bayley, Democratizing the Police Abroad: What to Do and How to Do It (Washington DC: US Department of Justice, 2001), p54.Google Scholar

Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999).Google Scholar

See: International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001).Google Scholar

Nicholas Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).Google Scholar

Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992).Google Scholar

Recent decades have seen a number of works dedicated to the topic of ‘chan-ging conceptions of security as noted in Daniel Baldwin’, ‘The Concept of Security’, Review of Inernational Studies, 23 (1), 1997, pp5–26,CrossRefGoogle Scholar

and Steve Smith, ’The Increasing Insecurity of Security Studies: Conceptualising Security in the Last Twenty Years’, Contemporary Security Policy, 20 (3), December 1999. Throughout the 1990s in particular a number of scholars sought to challenge traditional security paradigms that focused on state-centred and politico-military notions of security. Scholars therefore suggested that it was time to include ‘freedom from want’ alongside more traditional foci on ‘freedom from fear’ as legitimate security concerns.Google Scholar

Here, for example, security studies by author Ken Booth, ‘Security as Emancipation’, Review of International Studies, 17, 1991, pp313–26, suggested that security should be reconceptualised as an issue of ‘emancipation’ — the freedom of individuals (who were to be the ’referent’ for security rather than the state) to be able to function in all aspects of human life was thus in itself the crux of security and insecurity.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Other scholars such as Ronnie D. Lipschutz, ed. On Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995) sought to ask deeper questions both about this nature of ‘security’ and ‘insecurity’, and about the effects of labelling such issues as ‘security’.Google Scholar

Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (London: The Free Press of Glencoe Collier-Macmillan Ltd. 1960), pp418–19.Google Scholar

Gustav Daniker, The Guardian Soldier: On the Nature and Use of Future Armed Forces, Research Paper #36, UNIDIR (New York and Geneva: United Nations, 1995).Google Scholar

Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (London: The Free Press of Glencoe Collier-Macmillan Ltd. 1960), p418.Google Scholar

See: Michael C. Williams, Civil-Military Relations and Peacekeeping, Adelphi Paper No. 321 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1998).Google Scholar

Alan Vick et al., Preparing the US Air Force for Military Operations other than War (Santa Monica CA: RAND, 1997), p2. Indeed, in one scenario that the NZDF was heavily involved in, that is enforcing the peace process on Bougainville, the NZDF contingent was unarmed — confusing the military-maximum (armed) force and police-minimum (preferably unarmed) force rules of thumb.Google Scholar

John Allen Williams, ‘The Postmodern Military Reconsidered’, The Post-modern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, eds. Charles C. Moskos et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p275.Google Scholar

Adam Roberts, ‘Law and the Use of Force After Iraq’, Survival, 45 (2), Summer 2003, p34, states that ‘the numerous crises of the post-Cold War world have exposed a curious and little-noted problem: that the very success of inter-national law may itself have contributed, at least occasionally, to the per-ceived necessity to use force’.Google Scholar

Michael Ignatieff, Virtual War: Kosovo and Beyond (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000), pp100–1 highlights the intense involvement of military lawyers in all phases of the Kosovo campaign.Google Scholar

Peter Andreas and Richard Price, ‘From War-fighting to Crime Fighting: Transforming the American National Security State’, International Studies Review, 3 (3), Fall 2001, p51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sir Michael Howard cited in Tania Branigan, ‘Al-Qaeda is winning war Allies warned’, 31 October 2001, The Guardian, as found at http://www.guardian.co.uk/waronterror/story/0,1361,583789,00.htm1, accessed on 11/10/2004, believed that a ‘terrible and irreversible’ mistake had been made by declar-ing a war on terror as it granted the terrorists a status they did not deserve. Howard thought that a police operation under UN auspices with inter-national court involvement would have been the best strategy.Google Scholar

See: Adam Roberts, ‘Law and the Use of Force After Iraq’, Survival, 45 (2), Summer 2003, pp31–56.Google Scholar

Ray Takeyh and Nikolas Gvosdev, ‘Do Terrorist Networks Need a Home?’, The Washington Quarterly, 25 (3), Summer 2002, and Ken Menkhaus, Somalia: State Collapse and the Threat of Terrorism, Adelphi Paper 364 (Oxford: IISS, 2004), Beth K. Greener-Barcham and Manuhuia Barcham, ‘Terrorism in the South Pacific? Thinking Critically About Approaches to Security in the Region’, Australian Journal of lnternational Affairs, 60 (1), March 2006, pp67–82.Google Scholar

Thomas R. Mockaitis, The Iraq War: Learning from the Past, Adapting to the Present and Planning for the Future (Carlisle Barracks: SSI, February 2007), p12.Google Scholar

General David Petraeus as cited in ‘Brains not Bullets’, The Economist, 29 October 2007, p16.Google Scholar

This notion of security-development nexus is referred to in literature on human security and human development and indeed there is much concern about the securitisation of development goals. There has also been mention of this nexus in policing literature too. Here Otwin Marenin’s, Restoring Policing Systems in Conflict Torn Nations: Process, Problems, Prospects (Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2005), p2, sug-gests that ‘police reform projects have been influenced by two parallel but diverse discourses, policy streams and contexts at the international, transnational, and regional levels: one might be called the discovery of the development-security nexus, leading, in turn, to policy discussions on the need by the global community and transnational actors to be involved in peace-building, the promotion of human security broadly defined, and security sector reform (SSR); the second policy stream has centred on and responded to developments in the field of police and policing, including the emergence of international democratic policing regimes, and general approaches to reform and innovation of policing organizations and policing and public security systems’.Google Scholar

Oliver P. Richmond, ‘UN Peace Operations and the Dilemmas of the Peacebuilding Consensus’, International Peacekeeping, 11 (1), Spring 2004, pp83–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Roland Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Peter Andreas and Richard Price, ‘From War-fighting to Crime Fighting: Transforming the American National Security State’, International Studies Review, 3 (3), Fall 2001, p32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (London, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), p189.Google Scholar

Mitchell Dean, ‘Military Intervention as “Police Action”’, The New Police Science: The Police Power in Domestic and International Governance, eds. Markus D. Dubber and Mariana Valverde (Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, 2006), p201.Google Scholar

Otwin Marenin, Restoring Policing Systems in Conflict Torn Nations: Process, Problems, Prospects (Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2005), p39.Google Scholar

Skolnick (1972) p4 cited in Robert Reiner, The Politics of the Police, 2^nd edn (New York and London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), p2.Google Scholar

Jacques Rancière, Disagreement: Politics and Philosophy [Translated by Julie Rose] (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), p28.Google Scholar

Kimberley C. Field and Robert M. Perito, ‘Creating a Force for Peace Operations: Ensuring Stability with Justice’, Parameters, Winter 2002–3, p79.Google Scholar

Jeff Penrose, ‘Peace Support Operations and Policing: An Explosive Human Skills Mix’, The Human in Command: Peace Support Operations, eds. Peter Essens et al. (Breda: KMA Royal Netherlands Academy, 2001), p120.Google Scholar

See: John McFarlane and William Maley, ‘Civilian police in UN peace operations: Some lessons from recent Australian experience’, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Ad Hoc Missions, Permanent Engagement, eds. Ramesh Thakur and Albrecht Schnabel (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2001). John McFarlane further expanded upon these points in a discussion with the author.Google Scholar

Renata Dwan, ‘Civilian tasks and capabilities in EU operations’, A Human Security Doctrine for Europe: Project, Principles, Practicalities, eds. Marlies Glasius and Mary Kaldor (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), p266.Google Scholar

Eirinn Mobekk, Identifying Lessons in United Nations International Policing Missions (Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of the Armed Forces, 2005), p3.Google Scholar

Wesley Clark, Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo and the Future of Combat (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), p458.Google Scholar

Don Kraus, ‘The Need for UN Police’, Foreign Policy in Focus, 5 June 2003, as found at http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/peacekpg/reform/2003/0605police.htm, accessed on 01/02/2005.Google Scholar

David Bayley, Police for the Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p9.Google Scholar

Chuck Call and Michael Barnett, ‘Looking for a Few Good Cops: Peace-keeping, Peacebuilding and CIVPOL’, Peacebuilding and Police Reform, eds. Tor Tanke Holm and Espen Barth Eide (London and Portland OR: Frank Cass, 2000), p43.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group, Reforming Afghanistan’s Police, Asia Report #138, 30 August 2007, as found at http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=5052&1=1, accessed 10/10/2007.Google Scholar

For a critical view on this, and one that will be referred to in the conclusion of this book, see Oliver P. Richmond, ‘UN Peace Operations and the Dilemmas of the Peacebuilding Consensus’, International Peacekeeping, 11 (1), Spring 2004, pp83–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Elsina Wainwright (with contributions from John McFarlane), ‘Police Join the Front Line: Building Australia’s International Policing Capability’, ASPI Strategic Insights (Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2004), p3.Google Scholar