Use of Supplements and Drugs to Change Body Image and Appearance Among Boys and Male Adolescents

  • Lina A. Ricciardelli
  • Robert J. Williams
Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

One of the potential problems associated with boys wanting to become more muscular, gain body size and weight, and increase body strength is the increased likelihood of using appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs (APEDs). These include the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids but also food supplements such as protein powders and bars, creatine, ephedrine, and adrenal hormones. In addition, boys may use stimulants, and diet pills, powders, or liquids to reduce their body weight. In this chapter, we review the prevalence of APEDs and the factors that increase the risk that boys will resort to APEDs. We also consider how APEDs are associated with the experimentation of other substances, including alcohol, and other risk-taking behaviours.

Keywords

Body Image Adolescent Male Energy Drink Body Image Concern Protein Powder 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Almeida, S., Severo, M., Araújo, J., Lopes, C., & Ramos, E. (2012). Body image and depressive symptoms in 13-year-old adolescents. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 48(10), E165–E171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Bahrke, M. S., Yesalis, C. E., Kopstein, A. N., & Stephens, J. A. (2000). Risk factors associated with anabolic-androngenic steroid use among adolescents. Sports Medicine, 29(6), 397–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Coleman, J. (2011). The nature of adolescence (4th ed.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
  4. Del Boca, F. K., Darkes, J., Goldman, M. S., & Smith, G. (2002). Advancing the expectancy concept via the interplay between theory and research. Alcoholism-Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(6), 926–935.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Dunn, J., Lewis, V., & Patrick, S. (2010). The idealization of thin figures and appearance concerns in middle school children. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 15(3), 134–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Dunn, M., & White, V. (2011). The epidemiology of anabolic-androgenic steroid use among Australian secondary school students. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14(1), 10–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Eisenberg, M. E., Wall, M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2012). Muscle-enhancing behaviors among adolescent girls and boys. Pediatrics, 130(6), 1019–1026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Field, A. E., Austin, B., Carmargo, C. A., Barr Taylor, C., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Loud, K. J., et al. (2005). Exposure to the mass media, body shape concerns, and use of supplements to improve weight and shape among male and female adolescents. Pediatrics, 116(2), e214–e220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Field, A. E., Camargo, C. A., Taylor, C. B., Berkey, C. S., Frazier, A. L., Gillman, M. W., et al. (1999). Overweight, weight concerns, and bulimic behaviors among girls and boys. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(6), 754–760.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Field, A. E., Sonneville, K. R., Crosby, R. D., Swanson, S. A., Eddy, K. T., Camargo, C. A., et al. (2014). Prospective associations of concerns about physique and the development of obesity, binge drinking, and drug use among adolescent boys and young men. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(1), 34–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Grogan, S., & Richards, H. (2002). Body image: Focus groups with boys and men. Men and Masculinities, 4(3), 219–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Harmer, P. A. (2010). Anabolic-androgenic steroid use among young male and female athletes: Is the game to blame? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44(1), 26–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Harrison, K., & Bond, B. J. (2007). Gaming magazines and the drive for muscularity in preadolescent boys: A longitudinal examination. Body Image, 4(3), 269–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Hildebrandt, T., Harty, S., & Langenbucher, J. W. (2012). Fitness supplements as a gateway for anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(4), 955–962.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Holland, A., & Andre, T. (1994). Athletic participation and the social status of adolescent males and females. Youth and Society, 25(3), 388–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Huenemann, R. L., Shapiro, L. R., Hampton, M. D., & Mitchell, B. W. (1966). A longitudinal study of gross body composition and body conformation and association with food and activity in teenage population: Views of teenage subjects on body conformation, food and activity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 18(5), 323–338.Google Scholar
  17. Hüsler, G., & Plancherel, B. (2006). A gender specific model of substance abuse. Addiction Research and Theory, 14(4), 399–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Irving, L. M., Wall, M., Neumark-Sztainer, D., & Story, M. (2002). Steroid use among adolescents: Findings from Project EAT. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30(4), 243–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Jeffers, A. J., & Benotsch, E. G. (2014). Non-medical use of prescription stimulants for weight loss, disordered eating, and body image. Eating Behaviors, 15(3), 414–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Jeffers, A. J., Vataloro Hill, K. E., & Benotsch, E. G. (2014). Energy drinks, weight loss, and disordered eating behaviors. Journal of American College Health, 62(5), 336–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Jones, B. Y. (2004). Changing alcohol expectancies: techniques for altering motivations for drinking. In W. M. Cox & E. Klinger (Eds.), Handbook of motivational counselling: Concepts, approaches and assessment (pp. 373–387). Chichester: John Wiley.Google Scholar
  22. Kanayama, G., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. (2012). Culture: Psychosomatics and substance abuse: The example of body image drugs. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 81(2), 73–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Krowchuck, D. P., Kreiter, S. R., Woods, C. R., Sinal, S. H., & DuRant, R. H. (1998). Problem dieting behaviors among young adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 152(9), 884–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Labre, M. P. (2005). Burn fat, build muscle: A content analysis of men’s heath and men’s fitness. International Journal of Men’s Health, 4(2), 187–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Lawler, M., & Nixon, E. (2011). Body dissatisfaction among adolescent boys and girls: The effects of body mass, peer appearance culture and internalization of appearance ideals. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(1), 59–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Leit, R. A., Pope, H. G., & Gray, J. J. (2001). Cultural expectations of muscularity in the evolution of playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(1), 90–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Lerner, R. M. (1972). “Richness” analyses of body build stereotype development. Developmental Psychology, 7(2), 219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. López-Guimeró, G., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Hannan, P., Fauquet, J., Loth, K., & Sánchz-Carracedo, D. (2013). Unhealthy weight-control behaviours, dieting and weight status: A cross-cultural comparison between North American and Spanish adolescents. European Eating Disorders Review, 21(4), 276–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Martens, M. P., Neighbors, C., Lewis, M. A., Lee, C. M., Oster-Aaland, L., & Larimer, M. E. (2008). The roles of negative affect and coping motives in the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among college students. Journal of Studies of Alcohol and Drugs, 69(3), 412–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Martins, N., Williams, D. C., Ratan, R. A., & Harrison, K. (2010). Virtual muscularity: A content analysis of male video game characters. Body Image, 8(1), 43–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Mason, W. A., Hitchings, J. E., & Spoth, R. L. (2008). The interaction of conduct problems and depressed mood in relation to adolescent substance involvement and peer substance use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 96(3), 233–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004a). Body image dissatisfaction among males across the lifespan: A review of past literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 56(6), 675–685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004b). A longitudinal study of pubertal timing and extreme body change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls. Adolescence, 39(153), 145–166.Google Scholar
  34. McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. K. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of American College Health, 48(6), 297–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Morawska, A., & Oei, T. P. S. (2005). Binge drinking in university students: A test of a cognitive model. Addictive Behaviors, 30(2), 203–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Morrison, T. G., & Halton, M. (2009). Buff, tough, and rough: Representations of muscularity in action motion pictures. The Journal of Men’ Studies, 17(1), 57–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., Falkner, N. H., Beuhring, T., & Resnick, M. D. (1999). Sociodemographic and personal characteristics of adolescents engaged in weight loss and weight/muscle gain behaviors: Who is doing what? Preventative Medicine, 28(1), 40–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Pope, H. G., Kanayama, G., & Hudson, J. I. (2012). Risk factors for illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use in male weightlifters: A cross-sectional cohort study. Biological Psychiatry, 71(3), 254–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Pope, H. G., Olivardia, R., Gruber, A. J., & Borowiecki, J. J. (1999). Evolving ideals of male body image as seem through action toys. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(1), 65–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2001). Self-esteem and negative affect as moderators of sociocultural influences on body dissatisfaction, strategies to decrease weight, and strategies to increase muscles among adolescent boys and girls. Sex Roles, 44(3–4), 189–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2003). A longitudinal analysis of the role of biopsychosocial factors in predicting body change strategies among adolescent boys. Sex Roles, 48(7–8), 349–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2004). A biopsychosocial model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity in adolescent boys. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 179–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2009). Study of adolescent health risk behaviours. Unpublished manuscript, Deakin University, Melbourne.Google Scholar
  44. Ricciardelli, L. A., McCabe, M. P., Holt, K. E., & Finemore, J. (2003). A biopsychosocial model for understanding body image and body change strategies among children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 475–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Ricciardelli, L. A., McCabe, M. P., & Ridge, D. (2006). The construction of the adolescent male body through sport. Journal of Health Psychology, 11(4), 577–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Ricciardelli, L. A., McCabe, M. P., Williams, R. J., & Thompson, J. K. (2007). The role of ethnicity and culture in body image and disordered eating among males. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(5), 582–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Ricciardelli, L. A., & Williams, R. J. (2011). The role of masculinity and femininity in the development and maintenance of health risk behaviors. In C. Blazina & D. S. Shen-Miller (Eds.), An international psychology of men: Theoretical advances, case studies, and clinical innovation (pp. 57–98). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
  48. Rodgers, R. F., Ganchou, C., Franko, D. L., & Chabro, H. (2012). Drive for muscularity and disordered eating among French adolescent males: A sociocultural model. Body Image, 9(3), 318–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Ross, H. E., & Ivis, F. (1999). Binge eating and substance use among male and female adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(3), 245–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Sagoe, D., Andreassen, C. S., & Pallesen, S. (2014). The aetiology and trajectory of anabolic-androgenic steroid used initiation: A systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 9(5), 283–396.Google Scholar
  51. Shaol, G. D., Gudonis, L. C., Giancola, P. R., & Tarter, R. (2008). Negative affectivity and drinking in adolescents: An examination of moderators predicted by affect regulation theory. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 30(1), 61–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Smolak, L., Murnen, S. K., & Thompson, J. K. (2005). Sociocultural influences and muscle building in adolescent boys. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6(4), 227–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Stephen, E. M., Rose, J. S., Kenney, L., Rosselli-Navarra, F. , & Weissman, R. S. Striegel (2014). Prevalence and correlates of unhealthy weight control behaviors; Findings from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health. Journal of Eating Disorders, 2. Viewed July 4, 2015, from http://www.jeatdisord.com/content/pdf/2050-2974-2-16.pdf
  54. Tatangelo, G., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2013). A qualitative study of preadolescent boys’ and girls’ body image: Gendered ideals and sociocultural influences. Body Image, 10(4), 591–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Thorlton, J. R., McElmurry, B., Park, C., & Hughes, T. (2012). Adolescent performance enhancing substance use: Regional differences across the US. Journal of Addiction Nursing, 23(2), 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. van den Berg, P., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Cafri, G., & Wall, M. (2007). Steroid use among adolescents: Longitudinal findings from Project EAT. Pediatrics, 119(3), 476–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Vander Wal, J. S. (2011). Unhealthy weight control behaviors among adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology, 17(1), 110–120.Google Scholar
  58. Warren, C. S., Lindsay, A. R., White, E. R., Claudat, K., & Velasquez, M. P. H. (2013). Weight-related concerns related to drug use for women in substance abuse treatment: Prevalence and relationships with eating pathology. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 44(5), 494–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Whitaker, A., Davies, M., Shaffer, D., Johnson, J., Abramam, S., Walsh, B. T., et al. (1989). The struggle to be thin: A survey of anorexic and bulimic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population. Psychological Medicine, 19(1), 143–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. White, S. A., Duda, J. L., & Keller, M. R. (1998). The relationship between goal orientation and perceived purposes of sport among youth sport participants. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21(4), 475–483.Google Scholar
  61. Yager, Z., & O’Dea, J. A. (2014). Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement us, and attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescents boys: Implications for prevention programs. Journal of the International Society for Sports Nutrition, 11. Viewed June 23, 2015, from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1550-2783-11-13#page-1

Copyright information

© The Author(s) 2016

Authors and Affiliations

  • Lina A. Ricciardelli
    • 1
  • Robert J. Williams
    • 2
  1. 1.School of PsychologyDeakin UniversityBurwoodAustralia
  2. 2.School of Letters, Arts and Media, University of SydneyCoogeeAustralia

Personalised recommendations