In Chapter 3, the theoretical considerations relevant to various types of waveguides were discussed. In every case, waveguiding depended on the difference in the index of refraction between the waveguiding region and the surrounding media. A great many techniques have been devised for producing that required index difference. Each method has particular advantages and disadvantages, and no single method can be said to be clearly superior. The choice of a specific technique of waveguide fabrication depends on the desired application, and on the facilities available. In this Chapter, various methods of waveguide fabrication are reviewed, and their inherent features are discussed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
P.K. Tien: Appl. Opt. 10, 2395 (1971)
K.E. Wilson, E. Garmire, R.M. Silva, W.K. Stowell: J. Opt. Soc. Am. 71, 1560 (1981)
R. Behrisch (ed.): Sputtering by Particle Bombardment I, Topics Appl. Phys., Vol. 47 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1981)
F. Zernike: Fabrication and measurement of passive components, in Integrated Optics, T. Tamir (ed.) 2nd edn., Topics Appl. Phys., Vol. 7 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1979)
J.D. Plummer, J.D. Deal, P.B. Griffin: Silicon VLSI Technology (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 2000) pp. 539–555
A.B. Glaser, G.E. Subak-Sharpe: Integrated Circuit Engineering (Addison-Wesley. Reading, MA 1977) pp. 169–181
B.J.H. Stadler, A. Gopinath: Magneto-optical garnet films made by reactive sputtering. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 36, 3957 (2000)
Y.B. Choi, S.J. Park, K.S. Shin, K.T. Jeong, S.H. Cho, D.C. Moon: The planar light waveguide type optical amplifier fabricated by sputtering method. APCC/OECC’99. Fifth Asia-Pacific Conference on Communications and Fourth Optoelectronics and Communications Conference, Volume: 2 (1999) pp. 1634–1635
T. Kitagawa, K. Hattori, Y. Hibino, Y. Ohmori: Neodymium-doped silica-based planar waveguide lasers. IEEE J. Lightwave Technol. 12, 436 (1994)
M.P. Roe, M. Hempstead, J.L. Archambault, P.St.J. Russell, L. Dong: Strong photoinduced refractive index changes in RF-sputtered tantalum oxide planar waveguides. Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics Europe (1994) p. 67
T.H. Hoekstra, P.V. Lambeck, H. Albers, T.J.A. Popma: Sputter-deposited erbium-doped yttrium oxide active optical waveguides. Electron. Lett. 29, 581 (1993)
D. Ostrowsky, A. Jaques: Appl. Phys. Lett. 18, 556 (1971)
K. Enbutsu, M. Hikita, S. Tomaru, M. Usui, S. Imamura, T. Maruno: Multimode optical waveguide fabricated by UV curved epoxy resin for optical interconnection. APCC/OECC’99. Fifth Asia-Pacific Conference on Communications and Fourth Optoelectronics and Communications Conference, Vol.: 2 (1999) pp. 1648–1651
T. Sosnowski, H. Weber: Appl. Phys. Lett. 21, 310 (1972)
D.A. Ramey, J.T. Boyd: IEEE Trans. CAS-26, 1041 (1979)
R. Reuter, H. Franke, C. Feger: Appl. Opt. 27, 4565 (1988)
T. Arakawa, T. Hasegawa, M. Kawaga: Upt. Eng. 42, 898 (2003)
A. Neyer, T. Knoche, L. Müller: Electron. Lett. 29, 399 (1993)
D.P. Prakash, D.V. Plant, D. Zhang, H.R. Fetterman: SPIE Proc. 1774, 118 (1993)
P.K. Tien, G. Smolinsky, R. Martin: Appl. Opt. 11, 637 (1972)
S.A. Campbell: The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication, 2nd ed. (Oxford, New York 2001) pp. 39–65
J.L. Jackel, V. Ramaswamy, S.P. Lyman: Appl. Phys. Lett. 38, 509 (1981)
Y. Liao, D. Chen, R. Lu, W. Wang: Photo. Technol. Lett. 8, 548 (1996)
R. Twu, C. Huang, W. Wang: Micro. Opti. Technol. Lett. 48, 2312 (2006)
J. Hukriede, D. Kip, E. Krataig: Photorefraction and thermal fixing in channel waveguides fabricated in lithium niobate by titanium and copper indiffusion. Conference Digest IEEE Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics Europe (2000)
H.F. Taylor, W.E. Martin, D.B. Hall, V.N. Smiley: Appl. Phys. Lett. 21, 325 (1972)
W.E. Martin, D.B. Hall: Appl. Phys. Lett. 21, 325 (1972)
E.M. Zolatov. V.A. Kiselyov, A.M. Prokhorov, E.A. Sacherbakov: Determination of characteristics of diffused optical waveguides. OSA Topical Meeting on Integrated Optics, Salt Lake City, UT (1978)
B.L. Booth: Optical interconnection polymers, in Polymers for Lightwave and Integrated Optics: Techniques and Applications, L.A. Hornak (ed.) (Dekker, New York 1992) p. 232
T. Izawa, H. Nakagome: Appl. Phys. Lett. 21, 584 (1972)
R.C. Alfernes: Titanium-diffused lithium niobate waveguide devices, in Guided-Wave Optoelectronics, T. Tamir (ed.), 2nd edn., Springer Ser. Electron. Photon., Vol. 26 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1990) pp. 145–206, in particular, p. 148
A. Tervonen, S. Honkanen, P. Poyhonen, M. Tahkokorpi: SPIE Proc. 1794, 264 (1993) P. Masalkar, V. Rao, R. Sirohi: SPIE Proc. 1794, 271 (1993)
D.F. Geraghty, D. Provenzano, M. Morrell, S. Honkanen, A. Yariv, N. Peyghambarian: lon-exchanged waveguide add/drop filter. Electron. Lett. 37, 829 (2001)
B. Buchold, E. Voges: Planar arrayed-waveguide grating multi/demultiplexers based on ion-exchanged waveguides in glass. IEE Colloquium on WDM Technology and Applications (Digest No. 1997/036) (1997) pp. 10/1–10/5
D. Nir, S. Ruschin, A. Hardy, D. Brooks: Proton-exchanged periodically segmented channel waveguides in lithium niobate. Electron. Lett. 31, 186 (1995)
H. Ryssel, H. Glawisching (eds.): Ion Implantation, Springer Ser. Electrophys., Vols. 10 and 11 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1982 and 1983)
W.S. Johnson, J.F. Gibbons: Projected Range Statistics in Semiconductors (Standford Univ. Press, Standford, CA 1969)
R. Standley, W.M. Gibson, J.W. Rodgers: Appl. Opt. 11, 1313 (1972)
E. Garmire, H. Stoll, A. Yariv, R.G. Hunsperger: Appl. Phys. Lett. 21, 87 (1972)
M.A. Mentzer, R.G. Hunsperger, S. Sriram, J. Bartko, M.S. Wlodawski, J.M. Zavada, H.A. Jenkinson: Opt. Eng. 24, 225 (1985)
M. Barnoski, R.G. Hunsperger, R. Wilson, G. Tangonan: J. Appl. Phys. 44, 1925 (1973)
J. Zavada, H. Jenkinson, T. Gavanis, R.G. Hunsperger, M. Mentzer, D. Larson, J. Comas: SPIE Proc. 239, 157 (1980)
J.P. Donnelley, A.G. Foyt, W.T. Lindley, G.W. Iseler: Solid State Electron, 13, 755 (1970)
R.M. Alien, British Embassy, Washinton, DC 20008: Priv, Commun. (1976)
P. Bhattacharya: Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1944) pp. 133–137, 294–299
E. Garmire: Semiconductor components for monolithic applications, in Integrated Optics, T. Tamir (ed.), 2nd edn., Topics Appl. Phys., Vol. 7 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1979) Chap. 6, in particular, pp. 293–301
T. Moss, G. Hawkins: Infrared Phys. 1, 111 (1961)
D. Hill: Phys. Rev. A 133, 866 (1963)
J. Shah, B.I. Miller, A.E. DiGiovanni: J. Appl. Phys. 43, 3436 (1972)
J.T. Boyd: IEEE J. QE-8, 788 (1972)
H.C. Casey Jr., D.D. Sell, M.B. Panish: Appl. Phys. Lett. 24, 633 (1974)
V. Evtuhov, A. Yariv: IEEE Trans. MTT-23, 44 (1975)
Zn.I. Alferov, V.M. Andreev, E.L. Portnoi, M.K. Trukn: Sov. Phys. – Semiconductors 3, 1107 (1970)
J.H. McFee, R.H. Nahory, M.A. Pollack, R.A. Logan: Appl. Phys. Lett. 23, 571 (1973)
F.K. Reinhart, R.A. Logan, T.P. Lee: Appl. Phys. Lett. 24, 270 (1974)
S.M. Jensen, M.K. Barnoski, R.G. Hunsperger, G.S. Kamath: J. Appl. Phys. 46, 3547 (1975)
M.G. Craford, W.O. Groves: IEEE Proc. 61, 862 (1973)
S. Kamath: Epitaxial GaAs-(GaAl)As layers for integrated optics. OSA Topical Meeting on Integrated Optics, New Orleans, LA (1974)
H. Kressel (ed.): Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communication, 2nd edn., Topics Appl. Phys., Vol. 39 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1982)
C.M. Wolfe, G.E. Stillman, M. Melngallis: Epitaxial growth of InGaAs-GaAs for integrated optics. OSA Topical Meeting on Integrated Optics, New Orleans, LA (1974)
M. Kawabe: Appl. Phys. Lett. 26, 46 (1975)
K. Nakajimi, A. Yamaguch, K. Akita, T. Kotani: J. Appl. Phys. 49, 5944 (1979)
R.U. Martinelli: LEOS’88, Santa Clara, CA (1988) Digest p. 55
M.R.T. Pearson, P.E. Jessop, D.M. Bruce, S. Wallace, P. Mascher, J. Ojha: Fabrication of SiGe optical waveguides using VLSI processing techniques. IEEE J. Lightwave Tech. 19, 363 (2001)
A.A. Chernov (ed.): Modern Crystallography III, Crystal Growth, Springer Ser. Solid-State Sci., Vol. 36 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1984)
K. Ploog, K. Graf: Molecular Beam Epitaxy of III–V compounds, a Comprehensive Bibliography 1958–1983 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1984)
M.A. Herman, H. Sitter: Molecular Beam Epitaxy, 2nd edn., Springer Ser. Mater. Sci., Vol. 7 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1996)
W.T. Tsang: Appl. Phys. Lett. 38, 587 (1981)
J.C.M. Hwang, J.V. DiLorenzo, P.E. Luscher, W.S. Knodle: Solid State Techn. 25, 166 (1982)
C. Goldstein, C. Stark, J. Emory, F. Gaberit, D. Bonnevie, F. Poingt, M. Lambert: J. Crystal Growth 120, 157 (1992)
R.G. Walker, R.C. Goodfellow: Electron. Lett. 19, 590 (1983)
T. Matsumoto, P. Bhattacharya, M.J. Ludowise: Appl. Phys. Lett. 42, 52 (1983)
H. Ishiguro, T. Kawabata, S. Koike: Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 12 (1987)
H. Jvergensen: Microelectron. Eng. 18, 119 (1992)
A. Yariv: Optical Electronics, 4th edn. (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1991) pp. 309–316
B.G. Streetman: Solid State Electronic Devices, 3rd edn. (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. NJ 1990) p. 147
S.A. Campbell: The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication, 2nd ed. (Oxford, New York, 2001) pp. 68–95
C. Boulas, S. Valertte, E. Parrens. A. Fournier: Low loss multimode waveguides on silicon substrate. Electron. Lett. 28, 1648 (1992)
Q. Lai, P. Pliska, J. Schmid, W. Hunziker, H. Melchior: Formation of optical slab waveguides using thermal oxidation of SiO2. Electron. Lett. 29, 1648 (1992)
A.V. Tomov, V.V. Filippov, V.P. Bondarento: Pis’ma Zh. Tekh. Fiz 23, 86 (1997)
O.K. Sparacin, S.J. Spector, L.C. Kimerling: J. Lightwave Technol. 23, 2455 (2005)
Y. Luo, D.C. Hall, L. Kou, O. Bium, H. Hou, L. Steingart, J.H. Jackson: Optical properties of AlGaAs heterostructure native oxide planar waveguides LEOS’99. IEEE
D.G. Deppe, D.L. Huffaker, H. Deng, C.C. Lin: Engineering Foundation Conference on High Speed Optoelectronic Devices for Communications and Interconnects, San Luis Obispo, CA (1994)
E. Spiller, R. Feder: X-ray lithography, in X-Ray Optics, H.-J. Queiser (ed.), Topics Appl. Phys., Vol. 22 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1977)
R.A. Bartolini: Photoresits, in Holographic Recording Materials, ed. by H.M. Smith, Topics Appl. Phys., Vol. 20 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1977)
H.I. Bjelkhagen: Silver-Halide Recording Materials for Holography and Their Processing, 2nd edn., Springer Ser. Opt. Sci., Vol. 66 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1995)
M.C. Rowland: The preparation and properties of gallium arsenide, in Gallium Arsenide Lasers, C.H. Gooch (ed.) (Wiley-Interscience, New York 1969) p. 166
S. Somekh, E. Garmire, A. Yariv, H. Garvin, R.G. Hunsperger: Appl. Opt. 12, 455 (1973)
A.R. Goodwin, D.H. Lovelace, P.R. Selway: Opto-Electron. 4, 311 (1972)
M. Kawabe, S. Hirata, S. Namba: IEEE Trans. CAS-26, 1109 (1979)
F.A. Blum, D.W. Shaw, W.C. Holton: Appl. Phys. Lett. 25, 116 (1974)
H.F. Taylor, W.E. Martin, D.B. Hall, V.N. Smiley: Appl. Phys. Lett. 21, 95 (1972)
S. Somek, E. Garmire, A. Yariv, H. Garvin, R.G. Hunsperger: Appl. Opt. 13, 327 (1974)
G. Li, K.A. Winick, H.C. Griffin, J.S. Hayden: Appl. Opt. 45, 1743 (2006)
S.M. Sze: VLSI Technology, 2nd edn. (McGraw-Hill, New York 1988)
D.F. Barbe: Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI). 2nd edn., Springer Ser. Electrophys., Vol. 5 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1982)
J.L. Jackel, R.E. Howard, E.L. Hu, S.P. Lyman: Appl. Phys. Lett. 38, 907 (1981)
M.A. Bosch, L.A. Coldren, E. Good: Appl. Phys. Lett. 38, 264 (1981)
K. Gamo: Mater. Sci. Eng. B: Solid-State Mater. for Adv. Techn. B 9, 307 (1991)
A. Sure, T. Dillon, J. Murakowski, C. Lin, D. Pustai and D.W. Prather: Opt. Express 11, 3555 (2003)
H.F. Arrand, T.M. Benson, P. Sewell, A. Loni: J. Lumin. 80, 199 (1999)
E.J. Teo, A.A.Bettiol, M.B.H. Breese1, P. Yang, G.Z. Mashanovich, W.R. Headley, G.T. Reed, D.J. Blackwood: Optics Express 16, 573 (2008)
K. Imai: Solid State Electron. 24 150 (1981)
R.R. Gattass, L.R. Cerami, E. Mazur: Proc. Int. Workshop on Optical and Electronic Device Technology for Access Network, San Jose, CA, 51 (2005)
D.M. Krol, J.W. Chen, T. Huser, S.H. Risbud, J. Hayden: CLEO/Europe 2003 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics Europe, 346 (2003)
M. Lenzner, J. Kruger, S. Sartania, Z. Cheng, C. Spielmann, G. Mourou, W. Kautek, F. Ksausz: Physical Review Letters 80, 4076 (1998)
C.B. Schaffer, A. Brodeur, E. Mazur: Meas. Sci. Technol. 12 1784 (2001)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hunsperger, R.G. (2009). Waveguide Fabrication Techniques. In: Integrated Optics. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/b98730_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/b98730_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-89774-5
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-89775-2
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)