Technological Competence for Graduate Employability: Pedagogical and Professional Perspectives from Cross-National Translation Working Contexts

Abstract

The need to develop graduate employability in response to globalised industry has become one of the central missions of Higher Education Institutions. This paper reports on how technological competence is approached in university translation programmes and in professional practice. The research used surveys and interviews of 246 students, trainers and professional translators from two growing translation markets, Australia and Vietnam. The findings highlight that translation programmes need to provide more adequate training in computer-assisted translation tools and research skills, considering both international and local work requirements. The findings may have pedagogical implications for training programmes in Asia Pacific contexts and beyond.

Introduction

Developing graduate employability in response to today’s growing demands of globalisation and technologicalisation has been considered one of the central missions of Higher Education Institutions (Abelha et al., 2020; OECD, 2020; Small et al., 2018). The same holds true for university translation (and interpreting) training, a discipline in which recent work has also explored the implication of employability for pedagogy (Álvarez-Álvarez & Arnáiz-Uzquiza, 2017; Kiraly, 2016; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017; Schnell & Rodríguez, 2017).

The current increase in automation (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019), the emergence of new demands and forms of communication (Abelha et al., 2020; OECD, 2020; Römgens et al., 2019) with new technologies becoming a cornerstone of the translation profession (Bowker, 2016; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019) are triggering substantial changes in the role of a translator and in translator education (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019). Different challenges have been posed by the integration of professional skills into the academic translator training environment. One of the main issues is related to the (mis)match between university translation graduates’ competences and market needs (Álvarez-Álvarez & Arnáiz-Uzquiza, 2017; Do, 2020; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017, 2019; Schnell & Rodríguez, 2017).

This chapter follows an education ethos that, similar to any profession-oriented university programmes, the ultimate goal of educating prospective translation professionals must be to prepare graduates for the conditions they will undertake in the professional world (Cuminatto et al., 2017; Kiraly, 2016; Ulrych, 2005). It advocates that those competences required in the profession are expected to be included in training (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017, 2019; Schnell & Rodríguez, 2017). Within this chapter’s focus on developing technological competence as part of translator competence for translation graduates’ employability (Do, 2019a, 2020), the chapter discusses pedagogical and professional perceptions of what translation tools and resources are required by professional translators, and how—or whether—these are acquired in university translation programmes. It draws on two case studies of translator training programmes from Australia and Vietnam in the context of Asia Pacific higher education.

The research is based on the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data collected via online surveys and follow-up interviews. The chapter gives rise to the opportunities to see possible changes in translator training curriculum that can facilitate greater integration of competence development, particularly technological competence in the scope of this chapter, for graduate employability. Although the results do not claim representativity, the findings from this empirical cross-national sample of two growing markets in the globalised translation industry provide insights that have pedagogical implications that will enhance general graduate employability for other translation programmes in the Asia Pacific context and beyond.

Technological Competence

Technological competence, within the scope of this study, is one of the sub-competences of Kiraly’s (2016) translator competence model adopted for this research. The model is explicitly designed for curricular purposes and entails six competences (strategic workplace competence, technological competence, thematic competence, interpersonal competence, intercultural competence, and communicative competence) that a student should possess at the completion of their university translation programme (Kiraly, 2016). It underlies a socio-constructive approach that highlights the need for a professional-oriented training programme to develop students’ competences so that they can meet the professional requirements of the industry upon their graduation. As one of the key components in the model, technological competence is what translators are now expected to acquire in order to be capable of tasks beyond translating in the increasingly changing demands of their professional translation work. These changes are due to technological advancements, the need for speed in translation work and other requirements in this globalised industry (Kiraly, 2016; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019). In the practice of professional translation, technological competence involves the use of technological tools, documentary resources and terminology information research and management (Kelly, 2005; Kiraly, 2016).

Research Design and Methodology

This chapter is derived from larger research, which aims to assess the degree to which translator students are equipped with professional skills in their training programmes to meet professional translation requirements. The broader study aims to address two main research questions:

• How is translation performed in professional work contexts?

• How are translator students trained in university translation programmes?

The chapter focusses on two sub-questions of the research, which specifically examine the extent to the technological competence, within this study’s translator competence framework, required in professional translators’ work is developed for translator students in academic training. It investigates the linkage between translation practice and translation training in developing graduates’ employability, looking at the translation tools that professional translators are required to use, and those provided in translator training programmes.

The study adopted a mixed-method design, which included a first phase of online surveys (quantitative and qualitative) and follow-up interviews (qualitative data) to help elaborate the survey results. The participants recruited for this study consisted of 246 participants including professional translators (n = 86), translator students (n = 102) and translator trainers (n = 58) from both professional translation practice and translation pedagogy to obtain multiple perspectives of the linkage between these two settings (Table 11.1). The respondents were particularly recruited from Australia and Vietnam as two case studies in the Asia Pacific region. The chosen participants are believed to represent a global context rather than a local context, as within this study’s attempt to describe translator training programmes and the translation profession from a macro perspective. In the Australian context, the training programmes and translation profession involve language pairs in English in combination with East Asian languages, and also some European languages. The language pairs undertaken by the Vietnamese respondents are mainly Vietnamese-English and vice versa. With their particular historical, social and economic features, both contexts have witnessed an increase in growth in the translation market that in both countries is now increasingly globalised (see Do, 2019a, 2019b, 2020; Hoang, 2020; Orlando, 2016; Ozolins, 1998; Pham & Tran, 2013). The involvement of these two researching contexts, with their common as well as unique features may provide an interesting insight into the adaptation and development of the translator training in each specific context, and by extension, the global context.

Table 11.1 Online survey and follow-up interview respondents

The professional translators are those currently working from either of the two chosen contexts, Australia or Vietnam. The target population of the student and trainer groups are from six universities in Australia and five public universities in Vietnam that offer translation training programmes. In this study, the respondents’ training in translator programmes in the Australian context took place at postgraduate level. In the Vietnamese context, so far only undergraduate translation programmes are being offered in all public universities. Therefore, the mentioned programmes in Vietnam refer to undergraduate training only.

This chapter’s data analysis focusses on technological competence, one sub-competence component of the translator competence model adapted from Kiraly’s (2016) dynamic model towards translator education. The survey results are reported using frequencies and descriptive statistics. Cross tabulations were done to test whether there are any differences or similarities between technological tools used in the profession and trained in programmes in the two investigating contexts. The follow-up semi-structured interviews based on predetermined questions emerging from online preliminary data results, each lasting from forty-five minutes to one hour and a half, were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The themes were coded and categorised by NVivo 11 software. The interviewees are de-identified, who are coded and numbered according to their groups for data analysis. Those professional translators who had their university training degrees with a translation major also had the opportunity to relate their professional working experiences to their previous training. The follow-up responses therefore could provide insights into pedagogical practice from both pedagogical and professional perspectives, and outline possible linkages and/or dichotomy between academic and work environments.

Findings and Discussions

The findings in this chapter are discussed focussing firstly on translators’ work requirements regarding technological competence. It involves the use of technology or computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools and research resources in professional translation practice. Next, the chapter discusses the extent these tools and resources are provided in training for translation graduates’ professional readiness. The data analysis also focusses closely on the training of this competence in both contexts in Australia and Vietnam to see the linkage between professional requirements and academic training in these two settings. The findings are presented with primary results from the online surveys and further supported with the participants’ follow-up interview responses.

Use of Technology Tools and Researching Resources in Professional Translation Practice

In examining translator’s technological competence, the professional translators were asked to indicate the CAT tools and researching resources they have been required to use in their current translation work. The findings show a congruence between the CAT tools popularly used among translators and those commonly provided in training programmes in both Australia and Vietnam (Table 11.2). However, the extent to which these tools were focussed on in training, particularly in the Vietnamese training context, was still significantly lower than the level that professional translators reported as being required in the profession.

Table 11.2 Cross tabulations of CAT tools by professional translators in Australia and Vietnam

The overall usage of CAT tools from Table 11.2 reveals that the most popular tools translators had been required to use were SDL Trados (41.0%), Wordfast (22.3%), memoQ (18.3%) and gtranslator (13%). Tools required among the other 15.2% included, as indicated in the additional comment box, Transit, memsource, STAR transit NXT, SDLX, XTM cloud-based, Aegisub (subtitling) and other Google-based tools. Data from Table 11.2 also show the notable result that 39.5% of the translators reported no use of any CAT tools in their translation work. Although selecting ‘none’ to indicate no specific use of any CAT tools, many respondents mentioned in the comment box their use of many other technical resources, mostly relating to online search engines for terminology research, communication and documentary resources. These generally included the use of the Internet for terminology research, the use of online forums for terminology, or communication with experts for specialist consultation.

In addition to the presentation of the overall data regarding CAT tool usage, the cross-tabulations of tools to investigate variations in which the tools were used between the Australian and Vietnamese working contexts indicate no difference, except for the usage of SDL Trados (p = 0.020). Regarding this tool, professional translators in the Australian context reported a higher percentage of usage (57.1%) than in Vietnam (24.0%).

The popular use of CAT tools as reported in both contexts of this study strongly aligns with those commonly used in other contexts (e.g. Al-Batineh & Bilali, 2017; Schnell & Rodríguez, 2017). In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) context (Al-Batineh & Bilali, 2017), for example, data on translators’ requirements in translation job descriptions published in this region reveal that experience in using CAT tools appears to be a requirement of the utmost importance. Essential knowledge of CAT tools for translators as required in the MENA region involves commercial CAT tools mainly including SDL Trados studio, Wordfast and MemoQ, and this is consistent with the current research findings.

Further to the survey’s report on the popular application of CAT tools, the translators’ responses illustrated the importance of experience in using these tools in translation work. These include views about the essentiality of CAT tool experiences, and of experiences particularly relating to requirements of speed and quality, machine translation and editing, and localisation.

Essential CAT Tool Experiences

Regarding perceptions of CAT tool experiences, the translators indicated the necessity of being familiar with translation tools and knowing how to use them in translating different text genres as required. In light of this, it is worth noting that the translators in both contexts were found to work with a wide variety of text domains, including five main categories of (1). Administrative/personal documents/commercial texts; (2). Scientific texts; (3). Media texts; (4). Vernacular-based/literary texts; (5). Websites/audio-visual texts (see Do, 2019b). Although translators in each of the two contexts reported different frequencies of translation for particular types, which might relate to the prevalent socio-economic realities and language service demands of each context, translation of electronic documents, particularly web-accessed text in category 5 (websites/audio-visual texts) appears to constitute an emerging field in this study. Interview responses from translators from both Australia and Vietnam indicated the increasing popularity of translation of websites, subtitling, smartphone games and game contents.

The overall common text domains as found in these two translation markets show some correlation with those in other contexts. In the Middle East and North African region (Al-Batineh & Bilali, 2017), requirements in translation job descriptions indicate that jobs requiring knowledge of subject-field translation seek candidates with proficiency in technical, legal, medical, software localisation or financial translation. As translators in this current study have reflected on translation requirements relating to localisation of websites, subtitling, games and softwares along with the increasing demands of using CAT tools and research skills for translating these types (see also Do, 2020), media-related domains could be regarded as emerging translation genres in the contemporary technological era. In mentioning the required experience within this current translation work, one of the comments argues:

It is undeniable that technology is important in translation work, when a variety of documents required to be translated are in different formats. Professional translators should master technology, such as the use of CAT tools, machine translation systems used for professional translation practice. (Professional translator_Vn4)

CAT tool experiences have also been emphasised as an essential requirement in addition to language competence. A translator remarked on this as:

I would say the most important thing for translators is knowledge of CAT tools. The language skills, you take that as given. If you haven’t got any language skills you shouldn’t have been in the business, but the critical thing that makes a big difference is the ability to use CAT tools. (Professional translator_Au6)

These reflections on the necessity of CAT tool experience reinforce earlier findings of this research (Do, 2019a, 2020) about the common steps in a professional translation process, which clearly involve the ability to use translation tools throughout the process.

Recognising that technological skills, along with language proficiency, is an important component of professional translator requirements, many of the participants interviewed shared their perceptions on the need to focus on CAT tools training in translation programmes. One of the translators—also a freelancer for more than 20 years—highlighted the usefulness of technology integration in training and in application in future translation work:

Technology is obviously a good tool for people to speed up their translation process. Translation tools are now popular in professional translation companies and these should be taken advantage of and be trained at schools. This will be a base for those who want to become a professional translator to apply these useful tools in real life, improving the quality of translation work. (Professional translator_Au8)

Supporting the need for skills in using technology, particularly for freelance translation work, a translator believed that professional translators need to acquire basic technology skills during the training to enter the market more confidently. This translator remarked:

In this rapidly changing [era] of new technologies, I think there are some basic technological elements, common CAT tools that students should be familiar with, otherwise we have to go a long way again spending time obtaining technological skills as commonly required. (Professional translator_Au4)

As professional translation practice has changed radically with more challenging translation requirements and working methods (Do, 2020), and familiarity with translation tools (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019), hands-on experience or training in one CAT or more would be expected in training. Exposure to a range of tools and working methods is best so trainees can become self-reliant users of translation technology, with the confidence to explore and evaluate the usefulness of new tools as they arrive on the market in the future (Bowker, 2016; Kiraly, 2016).

Speed and Quality

Speed and quality were found to be among the most commonly expected professional requirements (Bowker, 2016; Do, 2019a, 2020; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019). In this regard, benefit of using CAT tools, machine translation and editing in dealing with time requirements was also strengthened by a number of translators. An in-house translator for a governmental organisation commented:

I found Wordfast and the MemoQ really helpful since they can boost the speed of the translation. They provide a translation memory of words, which I often find repeated in my translation work with government documents. That really saves time. (Professional translator_Vn7)

A translator who is also a project manager of a translation agency in Vietnam indicated their support for the application of CAT tools as follows:

I support the application of CAT tools because translators can save time and the translation work will be more consistent if technical tools are used, with database and translation memory created. In a group for a big project, for example, all translators need to use translation memory to have consistent terminologies with those used by others. Or when translators are required to translate a technical document based on previous translation, they might need to follow a provided translation memory. (Professional translator_Vn3)

The significance of CAT tools in translation particularly for dealing with requirements of time and quality has been much stressed in the contemporary era (e.g. Alcina, 2008; Alcina et al., 2008; Lafeber, 2012; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019). A result in Lafeber’s (2012) research, for example, has revealed that maintaining quality under time pressure is one of the most important knowledge and skills needed in translators. Characterised by a growing diversification of knowledge fields and specialisation of disciplines, translation work now often requires translators to produce a larger number of translated documents and in shorter timescales. Translators are therefore expected to use a wide range of computer-based tools and resources to enhance the efficiency, speed and quality of tasks involved in the translation process (Alcina, 2008; Kiraly, 2016).

In highlighting the significance of translation tools particularly in facilitating speed and quality, a number of translators also advocated the need to embrace machine translation to respond to market demands. One of the professional translators opined:

As multi-tasked professional translators, you may also be requested for editing tasks. Sometimes I’ve been called to pre-edit a text for machine translation or post-edit machine translation output. (Professional translator_Au5).

Corroborating the above opinion of machine translation and translation editing, another translator with over ten years’ experience in legal translation and who is also a project manager of his company, commented:

Well, machine translation can really aid my team and open up new possibilities in how we can manage translation projects. Occasionally, machine translation can be of some help in getting a draft and speeding up that initial process. Pre-editing around 10000 words a day or post-editing some similar amount would be what to expect in this machine translation process. (Professional translator_Au1)

The ability to pre-edit or post-edit machine translation was also mentioned reflecting growing demands in the use of machine translation in the process of translation work. This finding further stresses the need to integrate CAT tools and machine translation in training programmes.

Localisation

Translators’ responses revealed that CAT tools are also commonly applied in localisation. These tasks were mainly related to localisation of website, software and game. Among the interviewees commenting on this, a graduate from an undergraduate translation programme mentioned the frequent requirement of using CAT tools for website localisation from his international clients. This respondent stated:

CAT tools are required very often from my international clients. Skills essential in my work are often about using tools for website translation and website localisation. The tools really help us work faster and respond more quickly to the market demands. (Professional translator_Vn5)

In a similar trend, a trainer with a part-time translation job also indicated an increase in website localisation requests in her translation work:

I’ve been working with some website localisation, mainly about tourism websites from overseas companies. I can’t deny the assistance of technological tools in my work. (Translator trainer_Vn2)

Localisation of software and game was also reflected in one of the translators’ responses:

I’ve translated a smartphone game, I’ve had to do game localisation. I’ve also been requested for translation of software, software localisation. Most of the time I use Wordfast or Trados, occasionally memoQ, and these programmes make the process easier. (Professional translator_Au5)

The reflections on common requirements of CAT tools application in localisation strongly accord with the current increasing internationalisation and localisation of company and organisation sites, and the increasing use of machine translation to/from various languages to translate websites (Archer, 2002). In the current information and communications technology era, the increase of localisation has resulted from the emerging characteristics of the translation market, which are global, decentralised, specialised, dynamic, virtual and demanding (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019; Schnell & Rodríguez, 2017). The reported requirements of CAT tools in general are also corroborated by recent indications of market demands and the impacts of future sectoral developments on the profession (Rico, 2014, 2017). This was specified in a data set of professional destinations compiled by the Quality Department at Universidad Europea de Madrid (Rico, 2014), in which the translation industry demands a specialised translator to be fully conversant with computer-assisted translation tools.

Use of Researching Resources

As indicated earlier in the data findings (Table 11.2), in addition to the required ability to use CAT tools in translation work, translators’ responses also mentioned the ability to use documentary resources for terminological research and information management. Regarding these researching skills, the translators reflected on the expectation of possessing adequate skills to be able to do research, using the Internet sources as well as sources outside the Internet. In terms of the Internet sources, one of the professional translators highlighted the necessary skills of terminology research by using search engines as follows:

I think that terminology research skills are really important. How to use search engines for researching terminology, to get the most out of Google, Google images, Wikipedia or other specialist sites will be most helpful to translators. Because there are a lot of tricks that you can learn in the process and that’s very important. (Professional translator_Au2)

The ability to use search tools was also mentioned in relation to using sources outside the Internet via desktop search software on the computer. A professional translator shared her experience on the use of desktop search tools:

You can use the search tools on your computer, my best translation tool is not a CAT tool, but it’s a desktop search software called DT search, and that is invaluable because it enables us to create an index for various subject areas. Every time I find something on the net that relates to the subject area—might be glossary or an interesting article—I just download it and it goes straight into the index. (Professional translator _Au8)

Translators who are currently trainers and students working as translators also emphasised the importance of using resources and searching strategies in translation tasks. Based on his translation work experience, a trainer asserted:

Students need to be taught information mining. As prospective translators, they need to demonstrate the ability to find information that is both reliable and relevant to the task at hand. (Translator trainer_Au1)

On the same note, a student also supported the idea of equipping students with information mining skills, as he opined:

We should be very good at using glossaries provided or searching for other glossaries on the Internet, should see the real process of consulting experts about difficult terms or concepts, checking the target text over and over again to make sure it’s accurate and comprehensible. (Translator student_Vn10)

In a general view, the usefulness of providing students with both CAT tools and research skills was strongly advocated among the interviewing participants. One of the professional translators remarked on this:

So I would say the things are going across all the different fields, really good target skills, proofreading skills, really good computer skills and how to use the internet, how to search terminology on the internet, so I think those are the things that should be in any course, and those are the things that are going to be applicable no matter what language you’re working with no matter that your subject areas or specialist areas will be. (Professional translator_Au8)

The reported data have revealed the widespread perceptions among interviewees that familiarity with translation tools and resources is of paramount importance to embark on successful professional translation work. These consolidate the requirements of instrumental competence in translation work, as stipulated in the current age of intense time-to-market pressures (Bowker, 2016; Bowker & Marshman, 2009; Kiraly, 2016). In discussing the translator’s instrumental competence, Kiraly (2016) has maintained that, apart from the required competence of using CAT tools such as translation memory tools and terminology software, translators need to be competent in using the Internet and other resources for information and terminology research. In the sections that follow, the analysis will provide insights into the extent that students are trained for technology competence that professionals are required to possess in their translation work.

Use of CAT Tools and Researching Resources in Translation Programmes

In the the investigation of CAT tools training in translation programmes, the students and trainers were asked about the tools available in their training. The usage of these tools in the profession and in training is displayed in Table 11.3 to examine the linkage between the two settings.

Table 11.3 Cross tabulations of CAT tools used and trained between professional and pedagogical groups

Results in Table 11.3 display a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05*) in most of the technical tools that were commonly used by the professional translators, except for Wordfast. SDL Trados, the most popular tool, was used by 41.0% of the professional translators. By contrast, the use of this tool was much lower in training, at 22.0% as reported by students and trainers. As for memoQ, the professional translators also reported using this tool more commonly than it was provided to students in training, at 18.3% and 4.8%, respectively.

Wordfast was a common tool in both groups, with a quite similar percentage of usage, that is, 22.3% by professional translators and 31.0% by student and trainer groups. The fact that Wordfast can be accessible with its free online version might explain the similar common usage of this tool in the profession and in pedagogy. Data reported from the students and trainers about CAT tools used in training were also displayed in two context-based groups to compare the CAT tools provided in training programmes between the two countries. Notably, the cross-tabulations do not show any difference between the two training contexts (see Appendix 1).

In general, it can be said that although there is similarity in the common CAT tools in pedagogy and practice, the data show some incongruence in the percentage of tools that translators were required to use and students were provided in their training programmes. This lack of coverage on the use of technology tools in translation training seems to be an existing concern, as the situation elsewhere also revealed that technology was one of the gaps in translator training, with students indicating that their training provided only basic preparation for technology use in their professional work as translators (Gümüş, 2017; Plaza-Lara, 2016).

Further to these responses in online surveys relating to CAT tools, the participants also reported in the follow-up interviews on what training was given in their programmes. The reflections are presented in the following sections, with a focus on training in both Australian and Vietnamese contexts.

CAT tools and researching resources in translation training in the Australian context

Regarding the postgraduate programmes in the Australian context, data show evidence that skills in using CAT tools and researching have been incorporated into training programmes. Common activities reported in the process include students’ involvement in working on their translations and providing reflective commentaries on the process, in which they needed to document the resources and technology tools used for the translation. One student remarked:

In our programme, we can have access to Trados programmes in a computer lab and practise using this tool. We had an “Introduction to Trados” unit when we can have some basic knowledge of this CAT tool. Throughout this practice, we’re also required to reflect on what we’ve applied throughout our translation process. The training really helps for my current translation work. (Translator student_Au5)

On a similar note, others also reflected on being taught how to use and practise with translation software applications. In this respect, a student underlined the usefulness of technology training in her current programme to her translation work:

We have workshops working on Trados and subtitling. I feel that it is very important for us to know how to do it because I’ve been working in a translation company, sometimes they give us some translations to do and once the translation is accepted by the other party, they will give us a hundred of these with similar formats. The skills we have in Trados or similar CAT tool programmes can help to produce it more quickly. And sometimes I can create a glossary to look up very quickly; you don’t have to waste your time looking up the terminology, ‘cause this is a mining process. (Translator student_Au2)

However, there were also opinions indicating that training programmes had not offered them ample technological skills to work in a professional setting. A freelancer who is a new graduate from a Master’s translation programme mentioned the lack of technology training in her programme, stressing the need to prepare for freelancing work. She expressed her expectation of a greater focus on those skills as follows:

I don’t think we were sufficiently trained, with only two CAT tool workshops throughout the programme. I expected that we could have more training in that stuff, ‘cause I haven’t been able to use any of them as a practitioner, and I think that is partly because I haven’t done enough translation to make it worth investing in it but also partly because I didn’t get almost any training in it so it is hard for me to start using it, to feel confident. I can’t do more than a certain amount of work because I can’t do it fast enough, because I can’t use the technology to help me. (Professional translator_Au3)

Regarding training in research skills, it was largely reported that the postgraduate students had experience in acquiring these skills through a process of translation tasks. This process required them to reflect on the sources and methods for their terminology and documentary research. Almost all student interviewees from this programme shared their positive experiences of learning research skills from the reflection, in which they also had opportunities to share the strategies of using searching tools and online resources. One of the students said:

We would share resources that we found in doing searching for the translation. Having the opportunity to listen to others’ perspectives on the searching methods during their translation work, specific tools may help students to learn from their peers’ experiences and also to see different points of view that may help them to appreciate the importance of choosing a tool that they find comfortable to use and effective in meeting their needs. (Translator student_Au4)

The involvement of research skills in training, particularly through a translation training process, has been supported by a number of translation technology trainers (e.g. Gile, 2004; Orlando, 2016; Pakkala-Weckström, 2015). Along with their translations as assignments, the students are required to submit their reflective commentaries on their translation process (Gile, 2004; Orlando, 2016). In these reflections, they are instructed to briefly analyse the source text in terms of genre, type, function, and to document the sources and methods they have used in their translation process as well as to reflect on their most challenging part of the work (Pakkala-Weckström, 2015). Aligning with results from these previous studies, the students’ reflections in this finding show that training activities for research skills have enabled their engagement in exploring and comparing various resources. The reported experiences suggest that the students were able to learn and evaluate the resources’ usefulness and integrate their learning into the ways they prefer to work.

CAT tools and researching resources in translation training in the Vietnamese context

Concerning undergraduate translation programmes in Vietnamese universities, similar to training at postgraduate level, students’ responses also revealed their opportunities be trained in CAT tools. A student commented:

In my training, there is a simple basic training class in Wordfast which has taught me enough to use some other programmes. I can’t use a lot of functions in Trados but I can do enough to translate a document and send it back. Same with memoQ, I’ve used that for translation and for proofreading. And they’ve also used an outside trainer who is qualified in using the programmes. So I am able to use them in my current part time translation job. (Translator student_Vn1)

Regarding the opportunities of CAT tool training, efforts in making changes for better technology integration in undergraduate programmes were also mentioned. One of the students who is now at her final year of the programme asserted:

I believe that was one of the programme revisions they’ve made, for the last 3 years, they’ve added in more about technology use. They’ve added in Wordfast, I think it was not much, but since they’ve made that presence in the course obviously they are responding to what the workplace needs. (Translator student_Vn10)

Congruent with the above comments that the students made on CAT tool training, a number of trainers also indicated their efforts at improving technology integration in training programmes. A head of programme, who is also an experienced professional translator, reflected on the programme adjustment in order to link to requirements in the profession. He remarked:

We’ve added a new compulsory unit “Online Resources in Translating”. In this unit, students are introduced to trial Wordfast and Trados. We can’t provide ideal conditions to practise with professional versions due to financial constraints, but at least the students can have some basic skills. (Translator trainer_Vn2)

However, as this type of technological competence demands regular and repetitive practice to be assimilated in order to develop the skills to automatically use the technology, many of the participants did not think they had had enough training and practice, as recounted by one of the students:

Technology was rarely dealt with during our undergraduate training program. We did not have suitable CAT tools to practise on. I wish I could have learnt Trados at university and practised it often so that we could translate faster and could quickly meet the requirements of the work. (Translator student_Vn5)

Similarly, one of the students who had just entered the freelance translation industry complained:

We have been introduced to Wordfast, but we actually need to be in with the practice for the delivery, learning with the activities, experiencing SDL Trados. We don’t do that, but that should be the case. (Translator student_Vn7)

The above-mentioned reflection about the lack of technology application in the Vietnam-based translator training, as could be referred to in the review of relevant literature of this training context, possibly be due to the fact that most translation trainers are from a language teaching and acquisition background and lack formal training in translation and hands-on experience in the translation profession (Do, 2019b). This scenario poses the necessity of also equipping translator trainers with technological competence for the sake of students’ benefit in translation training in this field.

In this discussion of technological competence development, there also appears evidence of a sizeable gap to be addressed in the Vietnamese programmes in terms of facility conditions. Lack of access to training tools was claimed to be one of the obstacles, as one trainer indicated:

I think many of us trainers are really aware of the benefit of integrating technology into the translation training. However, there are several obstacles that might hinder the integration, one of which is a lack of access to appropriate hardware and software due to facility conditions. The current training is still just an introduction and basically based on trainers’ personal experience as experienced professional translators in the industry. (Translator trainer_Vn1)

This context, however, has recently witnessed a more routine incorporation of online resources into training practice. Responses from both students and trainers commonly stated that students have been taught how to conduct effective information searches during their translation activities and assignments via online discussion groups, blogs and translators’ forums. One of the students commented on the usefulness of their learning of information mining skills as follows:

I think this is very useful because it is one of the tasks that translators do as part of their everyday work. I have also developed my technological competence, using google translate, google image, websites like tratu.vn, and other online resources. (Translator student_Vn10)

A newly graduated translator said:

I have learnt a lot about terminology research and expert consultancy through online forums such as ProZ.com, TranslatorsCafé.com, and TermsCafé.com. I’ve also learnt from other specialists and terminology websites. (Professional translator_Vn4)

Based on the participants’ perceptions of the awareness of technology in translation work and the significance of its integration into training programmes, the gap between technological advances and pedagogical practices unarguably needs to be closed. By the time students graduate, as emphasised by Bowker (2016), they must be aware of the variety of translation tools available and have some exposure to a representative selection of these tools. By integrating CAT tools into the teaching environment, translation training programmes can transmit practical skills that will get graduates jobs (Kiraly, 2016; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019). The internet has transformed translation from a paper-based activity to a computer-based activity, as a result of which the market now demands faster, more competitive and resourceful translators (Bowker & Marshman, 2009; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019). The requirements regarding instrumental resources used in contemporary professional translation work pose pedagogical challenges. Specific training to develop the claimed insufficient technological competence in students—and some trainers—is clearly needed so that prospective graduates can benefit from the opportunities offered by the rapidly evolving field of information technology.

Concluding Remarks

This chapter investigates the linkage between university translator training and professional requirements, with insights into technological competence as required in translation work and trained in translation programmes. It focusses particularly on the usage of CAT tools and researching resources. In general, the results have revealed both professional and academic respondents’ high awareness of technology application and researching skills in translation work, as well as the importance of providing training in these skills to translation students.

The quantitative data show congruence in CAT tools that are popularly used among translators and those commonly provided in training programmes in both Australia and Vietnam. The importance of CAT tool experiences was reflected by professional translators relating to the requirements of speed and quality, machine translation and editing, and localisation. Translation programmes, especially in Australian universities, have been updated with most commonly used CAT tools such as SDL Trados, Wordfast and memoQ. However, the statistical difference in CAT tool usage, with higher percentages among translators in both training contexts, indicates an insufficient coverage of CAT tools in training. Added to this, there are significant differences in the extent that these tools are required in the profession and focussed on in training, particularly in the Vietnamese training context. Some translation programmes in the Vietnamese context still experience hindrances in the application, which might be due to financial obstacles and a lack of mastery by trainers. This suggests a need for more integration of and focus on translation tools in pedagogy.

It is clear from the respondents’ perspectives in this study that the importance of translation technology cannot be overstated. Responses from the interviewees clearly indicate that the Internet and new technology, together with internationalisation of the profession, have had a tremendous impact on translator practice. Although training has witnessed ample integration of technological skills, it still faces considerable challenges in bringing programmes closer to equipping students with adequate skills in translation work requirements. Within the discussion of CAT tools, it has been observed that novice translators sometimes exhibit ‘blind faith’ in technologies because they lack the confidence or experience required to use the tool in their translation work (Bowker & Marshman, 2009).

The reported requirements of CAT tool use and researching skills align with the current globalised move, pertaining mainly to the increasingly pervasive use of translation memory tools, machine-aided translation systems, multilingual document management applications and website and software localisation (Bowker, 2016; Plaza-Lara, 2016; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019). The lack of focus on the requirements of speed and quality indicated in this study’s findings further reinforces the strong need to prepare students to translate on a very tight deadline in order to meet the current professional translation requirements. It is true that for the requirements of workload and speed and quality, proficiency in the use of CAT tools and online resources is highly expected in translation work in order to leverage a significant amount of translated content, increase workflow efficiency, and ensure consistency as well as time- and cost-effectiveness (see also Al-Batineh & Bilali, 2017; Gümüş, 2017; Plaza-Lara, 2016; Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2019).

Considering the social and economic differences between the Australian and Vietnamese contexts (see Do, 2020), the perceptions on technological competence are surprisingly similar. It can be said that the two totally different realities are producing convergent perceptions on the issue of technological application into translation work and translation training. Notably, in an emerging translation industry such as that in Vietnam, the issues and concerns are quite the same as in the well-established translation context of Australia. Translator training is proving to be a still-emerging field in both Australia and Vietnam, with needs created from the evolving contemporary globalised industry. The chapter provides an opportunity for translator trainers and programme developers in other similar contexts to reflect on the training practice and explore relevant ways to effectively prepare graduates for their future professional requirements.

Appendix 1: Cross-Tabulations of Cat Tools Provided in Translation Training Programmes Across Two Countries

CAT tools trained	Overall usage (%)	Respondents	Responses by groups (%)	Exact Sig. (2-sided) p value
Wordfast	31	Au students and trainers	27.0	0.334
		Vn students and trainers	35.0
SDL Trados	22	Au students and trainers	29.3	0.124
		Vn students and trainers	14.7
None	16.1	Au students and trainers	17.6	0.284
		Vn students and trainers	14.6
memoQ	4.8	Au students and trainers	5.0	0.272
		Vn students and trainers	4.6
Others	4.8	Au students and trainers	5.9	0.413
		Vn students and trainers	3.7
gtranslator	2.4	Au students and trainers	2.5	1.000
		Vn students and trainers	2.3
Déja Vu	1.8	Au students and trainers	2.3	0.151
		Vn students and trainers	1.3
MetaTexis	0.6	Au students and trainers	1.0	0.150
		Vn students and trainers	0.2
GlobalSight	0.6	Au students and trainers	1.2	0.344
		Vn students and trainers	0.0
Lokalize	0.6	Au students and trainers	0.8	1.000
		Vn students and trainers	0.4

* The difference is significant at p ≤ 0.05.