Substantive policy recommendations emerge at the CCICED AGM after considerable dialogue about themes and priorities within each main theme, as well as mutual probing of issues by Chinese and international members. In these discussions, there is an attempt to understand the most significant factors, what might be visionary in scope, and time frames for change. Included is the need to account for the effects of extremely high economic growth rates, limited capacity in environmental governance, and other institutional strengths and weaknesses, especially at local levels. Mayors and other provincial and local officials, specialists in various fields, etc. are often tapped for their views on specific topics. In recent years, this input has been expanded through Open Forums held during CCICED AGMs (see Chap. 6.)

Understanding and Agreeing with Each Other

Language use within China often deviates from international descriptions of environmental solutions, often leaving international CCICED members and research participants with a need to understand subtleties, for example, what is meant by “ecological construction,” “five in one,” “ecological barriers and shields,” etc. On the other hand, in earlier times especially, concepts such as “demand driven” proved to be puzzling for some Chinese CCICED colleagues. Such situations have lessened, but not completely. Therefore, the crafting of mutually understandable recommendations in two very different languages can be a lengthy, difficult process. Structuring suitable approaches to work plans—even defining what constitutes theory and practices—can be difficult.

Seeking Green Policies with “Chinese Characteristics”

Whatever the origin of policy approaches, they must be crafted with careful consideration of how they can be made to work well in national and local settings within China. For example, how to deal with environmental impacts of development such as Township and Village Enterprise (TVE) smelters in the early phases of CCICED; greening a “socialist market economy”; very rapid urbanization where there are disparities due particularly to the hukou system; extreme dependence on coal as the largest single energy source for electricity; the profile of a green Chinese economy; measures of institutional strengths and weaknesses in the Chinese system; approaches to biodiversity and nature protection in a nation of 1.4 billion people; and green transportation. Box 5.1 provides insight into how such imperatives play out in CCICED discussions and approaches. Both international and Chinese participants have learned a lot in the process. Chinese senior leaders sometimes have commented that the development of mutual understanding of the nature and significance of Chinese characteristics is an important element of success on the part of CCICED.

Box 5.1. Some Green Policies with “Chinese Characteristics”

  • Especially in early CCICED phases, concern about off-the-shelf solutions being ill-suited for the Chinese economy, business, and governmental practices led to many efforts trying to understand what should be altered. This was especially true regarding some economic tools that were deemed to be difficult to implement in a “socialist market economy.”

  • Concern for advice about using imported species for ecological restoration (grasslands, forested lands).

  • Ensuring respect for ancient Chinese approaches related to water management, land use, and cultural practices.

  • Urban design and planning, including traditional buildings vs. high energy demand for skyscrapers with sealed windows, etc.

  • Small vs. large-scale initiatives for industrial transformations, rural and urban development, transportation, and technology choices.

  • Wariness towards new concepts being advocated by the international community, for example, initial mixed responses to a low-carbon economy, some international green certification programs, acceptance of non-mercury alternatives in manufacturing and use of mercury thermometers in hospitals, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) components involving wildlife and plant conservation concerns, social behaviour for conservation and for sustainable production and consumption, circular economy.

  • Design of work-around needs and solutions for addressing issues of S&T limits, especially for innovations regarding such matters as rural sanitation, novel approaches to climate change, and some aspects of biotechnology.

  • Important means such as pilot initiatives for creating adaptations that will help make Western innovations function well in Chinese settings.

  • Applying Chinese “advantages” for building hybrid national and international markets. The advantages are a combination of reaching out to a large domestic market, low production costs, rapid innovation, and rapid international marketing—for example, solar and wind commercialization.

  • Understanding Chinese characteristics related to governance issues such as administrative silos; overlapping jurisdictional situations; unworkable arrangements between central and local governmental bodies; top-down, limited participation situations; weak legal and enforcement situations; and inadequate information sharing.

Social Development, Gender, and Poverty Elimination

Building understanding, policy, and follow-up action for social development issues and linking these to environment and economy concerns is seen as among the most difficult tasks for sustainable development. This is true for rich countries, emerging economies, and poor nations. It is why social development is so prominent in today’s UN 2030 SDGs and in the earlier UN MDGs.

In its work and recommendations regarding social aspects, CCICED has focused particularly on public participation in development decisions, for example, in relation to EIAs of projects, access to information, people-centred development strategies, gender aspects of E&D, CSR and environmental, social and governance criteria, environmental health, eco-compensation, environmental risk assessment, sustainable consumption, and quality-of-life issues. Annex 3 provides a list of the topics covered by research teams arranged under 11 topic areas. The list indicates some of the subjects noted above, for example, a successful 2008 report on Environment and Health Management System and Policy Framework. Another example is a 2015 SPS on Eco-environmental Risk Management. A number of important studies have been carried out on eco-compensation, a topic that has been essential for addressing poverty reduction in rural areas.

The theme for the 2013 CCICED AGM was “Environment and Society.” It included two TFs: (1) China Environmental Protection and Social Development and (2) Sustainable Consumption and Green Development. In addition, there were several SPSs, including Media and Public Participation Policies on Promoting China’s Green Development and Corporate Social Responsibility in Green Development in China. The CCICED Issues Paper for this AGM provides an expansive overview of both the social development problems and the considerable progress achieved to date, plus 10 major policy issues.Footnote 1

CCICED started its work just a few years before the 1995 UN’s World Conference on Women held in Beijing. Yet during the 25th Anniversary Commemorative Summit of the 1995 Conference, UN Secretary-General Guterres noted that despite gains in some areas such as the education of girls worldwide, “the ambitious vision of the Beijing Declaration remains unfulfilled.” The China Progress Report for the 2020 Summit indicated that some “blind spots” remain in gender mainstreaming within China. Three recommendations by the PRC government regarding the environment were proposed to address these blind spotsFootnote 2: (1) “incorporate a gender perspective in environmental legislation and policy development”; (2) “further safeguard the rights of women and other beneficiaries to participate in environmental decision-making”; and (3) “further strengthen the collection, analysis and use of gender statistics in the environmental field.”

Efforts to incorporate gender parity as a key element of CCICED’s overall design and research initiatives began in the middle stages of its activities after considerable dialogue. How gender and some other social features should play out in CCICED organizational matters is spelled out with some clarity: CCICED “upholds the values of diversity, inclusiveness, and sharing. It aspires to a balance in gender, region, nationality and areas of expertise, and will increasingly involve youth, the private sector and civil society in its research and activities.”Footnote 3 A valuable contribution is a detailed 2019 CCICED Gender Tool KitFootnote 4 prepared after internal workshops and other discussions, including with donor partners. The kit provides comprehensive guidance to CCICED staff and researchers, with special attention given to all stages of work, from proposal formulation to the preparation of policy recommendations. It also notes that “the Executive Committee of the CCICED is committed to working towards increasing gender parity among those selected to join the Council, its advisors and its constituent bodies such as the Secretariat and the Executive Committee.” A progress tracker is proposed for this purpose.Footnote 5

During 2020 and 2021, a concerted effort to expand gender considerations was undertaken, with good participation by eight SPSs. An independent report on the resultsFootnote 6 was prepared in September 2021 based on each SPS’s gender-related content. This report noted three important overarching findings: (1) gender equality should be seen as a “multiplier of sustainability”; (2) gender equality awareness and action must be mainstreamed into environmental policies, strategies, and programs; (3) women have important roles to play as stakeholders and as agents of change (women as leaders of social networks, as gatekeepers and communicators, as conscientious consumers, or as entrepreneurs).

The independent report suggested seven ways to strengthen the integration of gender within future CCICED research: (1) commission a dedicated gender analysis for each SPS topic; (2) provide gender training specific to each SPS topic; (3) encourage each SPS to integrate gender considerations as a standard of practice; (4) mandate the inclusion of a section on gender equality and its intersection with the topic of each SPS; (5) appoint a gender focal point for each SPS team; (6) mandate the inclusion of a gender-focused case study or example within each SPS; and (7) mandate the inclusion of a minimum of one gender-focused recommendation in each SPS. This advice will be helpful for planning new Phase VII initiatives.

Phase III of CCICED ran parallel to the key period of planning and follow-up to the 2002 Johannesburg Earth Summit, where poverty and environment linkages were highlighted. CCICED Phases IV and V were very important times for initiatives related to the UN MDGs and also for addressing needs covered in the powerful Rio + 20 Conference final document: The Future We Want. In 2012, the Rio + 20 Earth Summit set the stage for the later preparation of the UN 2030 SDGs, and various other E&D advances we are seeing play out worldwide in China now. It is noteworthy that, for the Rio + 20 Earth Summit, Premier Wen Jiabao requested that CCICED organize a high-level Roundtable, which the Premier chaired, covering a range of topics, including some of the important social development and environment linkages.

While China has attained great success with poverty elimination, that is still not the case worldwide. China’s extensive international development efforts, including greening of the BRI, can be of help in many locations around the world. Furthermore, with China’s growing domestic prosperity comes the issue of income distribution and concentration of wealth within China. In recent times, attention in China is being given to” ‘Common Prosperity” as a means of improving domestic wealth distribution.Footnote 7 In essence, this means finding new ways to ensure that everyone benefits financially and in terms of access to development achievements. It is a call for moderate lifestyles, as well as fair distribution of benefits related to new technologies and a better balance of opportunities available to those living in rural areas in comparison to urban areas. There are both immediate (i.e., 14th FYP) and longer-term (2030–2035 and beyond) implications for China’s sustainable development and ecological civilization initiatives.

Snapshots of Five CCICED Themes for Policy Research

There are multiple ways to cluster CCICED’s research topics, and it is important to note that considerable interaction takes place among particular themes. For example, air pollution control involves transportation, urban design, industry, agriculture, and other topics. Annex 3 provides a list of 11 categories used by the SFU SISO team in their archiving of research initiatives (mostly between 1996 and 2018). The list is not complete, but the bracketed numbers provide a sense of how many initiatives were covered under each. The topic areas they suggested were: Economics, Investment, Finance and Trade (15); Ecosystems and Biodiversity Conservation (13); Energy, Environment and Climate (8); Governance and Rule of Law (9); Individual and Enterprise Concerns and Responsibilities (4); Planning for Sustainable Development, Conservation and Environmental Protection (17); Pollution Prevention, Control and Mitigation (9); Regional and Global Engagement (10); Urbanization, Industrialization and Transportation (8); Science, Technology and Innovation (5).

The top three themes noted above are planning for sustainable development and environmental protection; economics, finance, and trade; ecosystems and biodiversity conservation. The fewest activities are sustainable consumption related to individuals and enterprise concerns such as social responsibilities, as well as innovation related to S&T. Some themes—for example, the BRI and on Ocean Sustainability—are separated into their own categories during the recent years of CCICED Phase VI. It is important to recognize that while innovation (and also enterprise concerns and responsibilities) seem underrepresented, they also are researched in reports classified under other categories.

We have identified five major transformative change themes (Box 5.2), with somewhat different titles than those in Annex 3. Each reflects an overarching theme closely followed during all three decades of CCICED initiatives. They are by no means the only important examples we could have highlighted. All five draw from activities that stretch from Phase I to Phase VI of CCICED, albeit with periodic shifts in titles, objectives, content, and individual research team compositions.

For each theme in Box 5.2, our understanding and advice have evolved over long periods of time. They have served as some of the most important pillars of our work. These cases demonstrate how CCICED has been able to leverage knowledge gained over decades of work in order to shift attitudes and policies not only within China but also to build understanding and changes beyond national boundaries. We have selected one, Harmonious Relationship of People and Nature, for detailed examination (see Annex 4) using information drawn from the recommendations document submitted to the State Council after each CCICED AGM. This topic was selected because it is aligned very much with China’s determination that its society should become an ecological civilization. For the remaining four examples, we provide truncated timelines and transformative CCICED recommendations regarding each. This is done for the sake of brevity. Full information is accessible online in the archived Recommendations to State Council materials available from each year’s CCICED AGM.

Box 5.2. Five Examples of Transformative Change in CCICED E&D Frameworks Studied by CCICED

Harmonious Relationship of People and Nature

Comprehensive Pollution Control and Prevention

Energy, Climate Change and Low Carbon Economy

Green Finance, Investment, and Trade

Environment and Development Governance

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    Harmonious relationship of people with Nature: CCICED recommendations timeline

The basis of CCICED recommendations on “People and Nature” relates to a number of significant interests, including biodiversity conservation and species loss; ecological restoration and habitat protection—including addressing impacts of deforestation, grassland and wetland destruction, and desertification; and heavy demands from many types of agriculture and marine ecosystems in danger and declining fisheries (freshwater and marine). In addition, there has been a strong interest and need to preserve and enhance ecological services via rural and urban ecosystem planning and management, water basin management, and marine and coastal management. Also, recommendations to address ecological and environmental concerns of Chinese impacts globally and regionally through trade and investment abroad including supply chain issues; ecological and environmental issues of Chinese business activities abroad; and, broadly, China’s growing ecological footprint globally. China’s bordering lands and freshwater bodies involve 14 other countries, and there are significant land and water, species migration, public health and other matters affecting harmony between people and nature. In addition, China shares maritime boundaries with several other countries, such as Japan and various South China Sea countries. Chinese ancient belief systems that “man and nature” must live in harmony are a fundamental part of today’s concern for building an ecological civilization approach.

The need to realize these very broad aspirations via green development is urgent but also has both immediate and long-term efforts. This point is repeatedly made by China’s leaders, most recently by Xi Jinping during a field visit to the 700 km2 Saihanba Forest Farm in Hubei Province on August 23, 2021. This location is considered a “Green Lung of Beijing,” since it is a recovery from desertification through a provincial effort to “develop integrated management of the mountain, forest, lake and sand landscape…” The President noted that “The whole party and the people of the whole country must carry forward this [Sahihanba] spirit and develop a green economy and ecological civilization.”Footnote 8 His visit came a little more than two months before China’s hosting of the first round of two global CBD COP 15 meetings in Kunming. Transformative change has already taken place in China regarding the protection of nature, and much more will be done before the mid-century CBD global goal of a new, more harmonious relationship between people and nature. This topic is one of the most well-covered subjects by CCICED—with nature recommendations to the State Council in 22 out of 30 years, as noted below.

Phase

1 (92–96)

2 (97–01)

3 (02–06)

4 (07–11)

5 (12–16)

6 (17–21)

Years

2

5

3

2

5

5

During CCICED Phase I, the initial baseline recommendation came in 1993 with extensive follow-up, as noted below and in much more detail in Annex 4.

Baseline (1993 CCICED Recommendations)

China is rich in biodiversity. Its continued destruction could do enormous damage to the economy by weakening its natural base and depriving China of its potentialities for future food, medicine and other materials. It is necessary to: strengthen the system of terrestrial and aquatic protected areas; restore degraded habitats to ecological productivity; in order to achieve this, enlist the indispensable help of local communities; and cooperate with neighbouring countries to work out regional agreements on the prevention of trade in endangered species.

1996 CCICED Recommendations

New efforts [are needed] to explain and demonstrate the vital importance of biodiversity within the Chinese economy and the Chinese way of life; improvement in monitoring and managing natural resources; establishment of new mechanisms for protecting natural resources, including fiscal means; better protection of forestry; above all more association of rural populations with conservation and restoration, so that they have a stake in it. Social and economic, as well as biological factors need to be taken more into account.

Later Phases of CCICED Recommendations

In later CCICED Phases, nature and ecological recommendations become increasingly complex, with shifts away from the initial considerations focused on biodiversity, nature reserves, and illegal wildlife trade. Much greater attention was given to topics related to sustainable agriculture, the urgent need for forest and grassland protection, ecosystem protection and restoration, and emphasis on ecological services. From 2006 onwards, topics began to include the examination of large units, such as river basin management, especially the Yangtze River, “mountain to sea,” and other comprehensive topics. Throughout, emphasis has been on the need to adequately compensate poorer upstream communities for their role in protecting often much richer cities and downstream rural areas that benefited from better ecological conditions. The topic of eco-compensation has become highly sophisticated and continues to be refined with inputs via CCICED and others to the present time. By 2010, climate change impacts had entered the picture, with complex themes such as carbon sequestration.

Over the past decade, emphasis has been placed on ecological health in broad terms and its linkages with human health, most recently with the concern for COVID-19 and also matters such as environmental risks. A neglected topic during the first 18 years of CCICED concerned unsustainable practices in the use of the oceans and coastal areas. Major efforts and recommendations were made in 2010–2012 and again during the entire period of Phase VI. This work has been very productive and produced a stream of recommendations to the State Council. The policy needs regarding Nature have included considerable economic work related to natural resource matters; new law on subjects related to the development of functional zoning—and especially ecological redlining; studies on important green finance topics, including valuation and taxation of resources and eco-ecological attributes; and the distribution of benefits related to biodiversity and ecological conservation. With the rise of eco-tourism and other benefits such as urban green space, as well as sustainable consumption, including green food production opportunities, it is clear that nature-based studies will continue to hold a strong place in future CCICED efforts.

During the last two CCICED Phases, ecological civilization has become a theme of considerable significance guiding research topics. The shift towards ecological subjects provides a more comprehensive base for identifying synergies and co-benefits and is in keeping with international trends towards recognizing linkages involving complex systems. This is reflected in the growing capacity within CCICED and in Chinese policy circles towards dealing with multiple drivers of major problems.

This brief overview hardly gives a full picture of the work carried out by CCICED on the topic of the “Harmonious Relationship of People with Nature.” A more fulsome compilation of key recommendations on People and Nature from 1992 to 2021 is presented in Annex 4. Even this extraction from individual years of recommendations is incomplete. The full recommendations for each year are available online. Also, the main reports on specific topics generally have detailed policy recommendations targeted to specific units of government and other audiences.

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    Comprehensive pollution control and prevention: CCICED recommendations timeline

CCICED Phases I–II, 1992–2001

Baseline 1994: Control of pollution requires detailed knowledge, which can only be gained through rigorous monitoring. It must form part of integrated environmental policy planning, which in turn must form part of economic planning as a whole. It is necessary to put sufficient resources into monitoring; to establish a sound database on environmental quality with projections for the future; to focus on clean technologies and clean production methods; to ensure better coordination between local, provincial, and national authorities with a staff training program; to make more and better use of such policy instruments as licences, levies, fees, incentives, and disincentives; to set priorities for action in meeting the specific goals in the area identified in China's Agenda 21 report; to draw upon the experience and up-to-date technologies of industrial countries, while recognizing cost factors, with the aim of reducing further damage to the environment.

1996 Formulation of an Urban Water Conservation and Environmental Pollution Plan, covering all water issues including supply, saving, recycling, and waste disposal; establishment of rural, inter-city, and inter-provincial Commissions covering such environmental problems as acid rain in defined geographical areas; new means for preventing and disposing of industrial and toxic wastes…

2000 The old practice of “taking treatment measures only after pollution has already occurred” and “end-of-pipe treatment” should be avoided. In other words, the traditional industrial stage characterized by heavy environmental pollution should be leapfrogged.

CCICED Phases III–IV, 2002–2011

2004 Develop a national strategy to control non-point pollution (NPP)…formulated in the context of IRBM and actions to limit the overuse of irrigation, global concern for greenhouse gases, agricultural policies, and better control of point sources such as village and town sewage and wastes from intensive animal production.

2006 Enhance environmental management in the countryside…improve access to clean drinking water…promote development of methane digesters, as well as solar and renewable energy sources…study potential carbon sequestration of altered agricultural practices…extend the concept of Circular Economy to agriculture, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and long-range air pollution.

2007 Adopt the “Five Shifts” approach and examine how it could be implemented in not only the 11th but also the 12 and 13th FYPs: (1) move to a focus on reducing total emissions and specific improvements in environmental quality; (2) move from an over-reliance on reducing pollution from selected industries to reducing pollution from all industries; (3) move from total control of single pollutants to the coordinated control of many pollutants; (4) move from increasing the number of pollution reduction projects to increasing their quality; and (5) move from reliance on administrative mechanisms to greater use of market-based instruments.

2007 Establish China’s Environmentally Sound and Strategic Management of Chemicals System…strengthen capacity building to carry out effective testing, evaluation, monitoring… A long-term action plan for risk assessment should be developed. Chemicals with high risks to health and environment…should follow clean production and green chemistry concepts. The strategy should be WTO compliant…[Adopt] a special law or administrative regulations on chemical environment administration…should establish a basic institutional system on chemical environmental administration…[including] a publication system for toxic chemical pollutants so that the Chinese public is informed and can participate in the government decision-making on chemicals management.

CCICED Phases V–VI, 2012–2021

2012 Integrate regional environmental capacity, optimize economic structure and layout, and establish a new regional joint control mechanism. Deepen industrial pollution control, advance SOx emission reduction, establish industrial NOx control system focusing on power and cement sectors, deepen industrial smog pollution control, and enhance VOCs pollution control from typical sectors and sources. Multiple pollution control is essential if good air quality is to be secured… Develop, maintain, and update scientifically sound pollution inventories.

2013 Focus greater effort on the resolution of prominent environmental issues such as air, water, and soil pollution, in order to meet basic public demands for a healthy environment.

2014 Develop a broader regional air pollution control mechanism robust enough to stop severe air pollution and to restore air quality…Adopt a science-based regional approach for atmospheric management….Launch comprehensive pollutant control of industrial sources, domestic and rural non-point sources, and mobile and non-road equipment sources.

2014 Improve economic incentive policies for motor vehicle pollution control…Motor vehicle fuel surcharges should be introduced at a proper time in order to lower the intensity of vehicle use…A new air pollution control fund could be funded from the fuel surcharge…Use fiscal and taxation measures to promote the phasing out of yellow label and old vehicles.

2017 Create a 15-Year Strategy for War on Pollution Action Plans…there should be a longer-term and integrated effort focused on cost-effectiveness, synergies, and ways to build public confidence about eventual results from the War on Pollution.

2018 Strengthen green development performance in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB)…continue efforts to reduce the volume of solid waste pollution causing serious water pollution in upstream and downstream areas through to the oceans; (ii) develop economic incentives for collecting and disposing of solid wastes; (iii) promote the recycling of waste materials and reduce the incineration rate; (iv) improve livestock and poultry farming pollution control measures; (v) improve the performance of wastewater treatment plants and treatment of sludge; (vi) pay more attention to social concerns through public awareness campaigns on solid waste treatment and recycling activities.

2018 Formulate a national action plan for marine debris pollution prevention and control. Speed up the research and application of innovative approaches for substitution of plastic products and for waste treatment.

2019 Strengthen regulations and risk prevention for chemicals, nanomaterials, and other substances by providing ongoing risk assessment and risk management for legacy as well as new chemicals, including assessing the acute and chronic effects of new nanochemicals.

2020 Promote Circular Economy Solutions and Implement Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)…with implementation of the early 2020 MEE–NDRC joint announcement on plastics, as well as setting guidelines to reduce plastics and packaging waste in e-commerce, logistics, and related systems; implementing waste separation and sorting to improve the plastic waste recycling system; and reducing and eliminating single-use plastics. Strengthen CSR related to green consumption, waste reduction, and improve waste recovery will also be crucial…

2021 Establish and improve joint scientific and technological research mechanisms to improve science-based marine and oceans management, including tackling marine pollution from point and non-point sources. Strengthen pollution prevention and control with integrated land and sea management. Bolster the monitoring and traceability of mercury pollutants, tackle marine plastic and micro-plastic pollution at the source, reduce plastic waste, and enhance the capacity of waste management and disposal.

2021 Adopt an assessment system covering the entire life cycle of products in the steel industry, including developing standards, assessment measures, and certification schemes for eco-design in the steel industry to encourage synergies in carbon emission reduction and pollution control. Advance green taxation reform in the automobile industry and implement tax policies to encourage the use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFC)-free technologies. Apply eco-design concepts and methodologies, as well as stronger disclosure and public participation mechanisms, to ensure the minimal environmental footprints of waste incineration facilities, creating livable habitats for people.

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    Energy, climate change, and low-carbon economy: CCICED recommendations timeline

CCICED Phases I–II, 1992–2001

Baseline 1993: Energy is critical. At present, dependence on coal is a prime cause of pollution and contributes to global as well as local climate change. It is necessary to promote energy conservation and efficiency in domestic and industrial use, clean coal technologies, and alternative renewable sources of energy…China should make efforts to reduce atmospheric carbon emissions, which are related to international efforts.

1996 Reduction of dependence on coal as a long-term strategy; development of new technologies for its use, particularly beneficiation, gasification, desulphurization, and liquefaction; increase in the role of natural gas, importing supplies as necessary; development of alternative energy sources, including agro-energy, biomass, wind and solar, with demonstration projects where appropriate; continuing emphasis on energy saving and efficiency through removal of artificial obstacles and adoption of best new methods; creation of a legislative framework for prices, taking account of environmental and social costs; further development of the national plan for coping with such global problems as climate change.

2000 For western China, wind energy resources (accounting for half the national total) should help to meet energy demand not only in the west but elsewhere in China. Ambitious Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) policies should be put forward at the national level to ensure that power supply departments include a percentage of green electricity (i.e., generated from renewable resources) in their supplies, either self-generated or purchased.

2007 Combine the endeavours of energy conservation and pollutant emission reduction in China with that of CO2 emission reduction…[to] begin moving towards a pathway in China consistent with global efforts to achieve a low-carbon economy in the future.

CCICED Phases III–IV 2002–2011

2008 China should consider specifying low-carbon economy-related targets in the 12th FYP for economic and social development and incorporate the low-carbon economy in current strategies and actions.

2009 Based on both the international and national contexts, China should develop a national Low Carbon Economic Development Plan as soon as possible, including strategic objectives, specific tasks, and measures. Low-carbon pilot demonstrations should be initiated within key industrial sectors and within selected urban and rural locations. Low-carbon economy lifestyles and opportunities should be promoted widely to China’s citizens.

2011 Map out a development plan for low-carbon industrialization in China with carbon intensity targets set for main heavy industrial sectors…Improve the regulatory and voluntary standard system for low-carbon production and products…Build a low-carbon industrial system that champions and supports the green transformation of economic development mode.

CCICED Phases V–VI, 2012–2021

2014 Make great efforts to improve the energy efficiency of major coal-consuming sectors, such as power plants and industry. China should continue to increase the proportion of coal washing and promote only clean coal technologies.

2017 Clean coal and synthetic natural gas for power generation should be transient technologies, bridging from old to new during China’s green transition. Large-scale deployment of “clean coal” needs an exit plan and an exit budget to protect China from being locked into a path of prolonged fossil fuel use.

2017 Through co-benefits, China’s pollution reduction plans can contribute to a steady transition for meeting the Paris targets of staying within a global 1.5–2 °C temperature increase. Action on black carbon sources will also reduce PM2.5 pollution and ozone pollution. Action on methane emissions will become very important. Monitoring of co-benefit results is essential…Prime cases are the Yangtze River Economic Belt and the Hebei-Beijing-Tianjin region.

2018 Tighten coal control policies and the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Specifically, China should end coal quotas and long-term contracts, control industrial coal use and help coal-dependent provinces to transition to other sources of prosperity…In terms of efficiency, China is well positioned to lead in the implementation of the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol by introducing world-leading standards for domestic and exported air-conditioning and demonstrating centralized cooling at scale.

2018 Upgrade China’s contribution to global climate governance through enhanced action on climate change mitigation within China.

2019 Develop a clear vision of China’s low-carbon development: Through an updated Nationally Determined Contribution, set new targets to attain GHG emissions peaking for key sectors and certain regions during the 14th FYP and set an emissions cap during this period. Develop decarbonization pathways to 2050. Accelerate reductions in the total use of coal and expand renewable energy use. Climate mitigation targets should comprise carbon dioxide and other GHGs, including HFCs, methane and other short-lived climate pollutants…Activate the carbon market…

2019 Climate adaptation plans should be integrated into national and local government planning. Seek synergies between climate adaptation and freshwater management, biodiversity conservation, marine governance, human health protection, and green infrastructure.

2019 Strengthen research, development, and promotion of major low-carbon technologies, such as energy storage technologies, carbon capture and storage (including both nature and technology based), photovoltaic efficiency-improvement technologies, long-term battery storage, and other areas of low-carbon/zero-carbon innovation.

2019 Promote technological innovation in urban infrastructure and energy systems, including expanding urban green and nature-based infrastructure and green zones; high-standard green buildings; clean, low-carbon energy systems; stringent energy-efficiency standards for consumer goods like appliances; cooling and lighting systems; and establishing a circular economy system covering waste reduction, sewage treatment and waste disposal.

2019 Incorporate climate change into the Central Environmental Inspection Program…Integrate climate change tasks into the existing supervision system for eco-environmental protection.

2020 Pursue ambitious climate targets with energy transition at their core to build a low-carbon society: This will involve building a clean, low-carbon, safe and efficient energy system while setting more ambitious and binding targets for GHG emission reductions—e.g., setting an absolute cap on carbon emissions for 2025 and 2030. Emission caps should also include non-carbon dioxide emissions, notably methane and HFCs.

2021 Coordinate and implement the carbon peaking and carbon-neutrality targets…Institutionalize China’s high-level central working group on carbon peaking and carbon neutrality to advance…development of carbon–neutral interim targets, timetables, and action roadmaps. Encourage those provinces and cities that have rich endowments in renewable energy, as well as the sectors that produce power, steel, cement, and other high-carbon industries to reach peak CO2 emissions ahead of schedule. By 2050, build a carbon–neutral economic and social system, striving to reach near-zero CO2 emissions…Update the Nationally Determined Contributions plan prior to the Glasgow UNFCCC COP 26, with a view to closing the gap between collective global ambitions and the Paris Agreement targets. Establish an absolute carbon emission cap control system… Reserve a policy window for introducing a carbon tax for key sectors not covered under the emissions trading system… Implement climate-friendly air pollution prevention and control strategies…Strengthen the legal basis for the climate transition… Accelerate the decarbonization of the manufacturing sector…paying special attention to achieving high rates of renewable energy penetration with minimal biodiversity impacts…Set out clear targets, timetables and detailed green investment roadmaps to achieve carbon peaking before 2030 and carbon neutrality before 2060…Fully implement climate risk disclosure and climate risk reporting. Encourage innovation in climate investment and in financing products and instruments, initiate local pilot projects, and develop an applicable, efficient, and advanced classification standard system for climate investment and financing. Actively phase out fossil fuel subsidies…Collaborate with the Belt and Road South–South Cooperation Initiative on Climate Change and the Green Silk Road Envoy Program.

2021 Address equity and justice issues that may arise from the green transition prudently, especially employment and economic development in coal-reliant areas. Advance gender equity in this context. Develop coal phase-out mechanisms. Consider solutions such as resettlement compensation and employment transition. Establish dedicated funds for a just transition and the orderly phase-out of coal for the upgrading of high energy-consuming industries and for the inclusive transformation of underdeveloped areas.

2021 Ensure that carbon peaking and carbon neutrality form the strategic foundation of green urbanization and spatial planning…

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    Green finance, investment, and trade: CCICED recommendations timeline

CCICED Phases I–II, 1992–2001

Baseline 1993 (Green Finance and Investment): Correct valuation and pricing of resources is the key to a sustainable economy. It is necessary to develop and adopt resource pricing policies which reflect environmental and social costs; remove inappropriate subsidies; improve the present National Economic Accounting System by incorporating environmental costs into it; and develop and use economic and fiscal instruments for environmental management and pollution control… Allocate adequate funds to support the implementation of environmental laws, standards, and regulations.

Baseline 1996 (Trade): Integration of environmental factors into foreign trade policy, especially in relations with Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation and the World Trade Organization; strengthening of the eco-labelling program with a view not only to domestic consumption but the promotion of exports of environmentally friendly products; promotion of green foods through the application of standards to reduce current agricultural dependence on chemical inputs…

2000 Relevant environmental tax reform should be implemented. Environmental taxation should be adopted as a market instrument so as to reflect environmental costs and promote the commercialization of sustainable technologies. The pollution fee collection system and other environment-related taxes could be unified into a coordinated and efficient environmental taxation management system.

2000 (Investment) Integrated investment policies for sustainable development should be established. Incentives (such as tax reduction or exemption) should be created to encourage investment into sustainable utilization of resources, high value-adding industries, and cleaner industries. Likewise, disincentives should also be created to prevent pollution-intensive industries and industries that have been banned by investors’ home countries or prohibited by international environmental agreements from transferring into western China.

CCICED Phases III–IV, 2002–2011

2002 (Trade) PRC should require a strategic environmental assessment and perhaps a sustainability impact assessment be performed on the impacts of China’s accession to the WTO…[and] should establish mechanisms to monitor and report on significant changes in the laws and regulations of other countries that might affect China’s international trade.

2004 (Trade) Formulate a Green Trade Action Plan with policies that promote the import of resource and energy-intensive materials and products and the export of labour-intensive products, services, and technology-intensive products. The Foreign Trade Law should be amended to reflect the concept of sustainable development and to ensure the implementation of Green Trade.

2006 (Finance) [Undertake] comprehensive fiscal reform in favour of “resource saving, environmentally friendly, harmonious and sustainable development”…[including] establishment of inter-ministerial evaluation mechanisms in environmental fiscal reform… reduction and lifting of subsidies that have significant adverse impacts on resources and the environment…an eco-compensation mechanism…a gradual shift from production to consumption taxes to avoid wasteful consumption, and government procurement procedures to encourage green consumption.

2007 (Trade) Address in a more timely and effective way the environmental challenges brought by economic globalization…. While China enjoys a “trade surplus” in economic terms, it is also building a domestic “ecological deficit” generated by the export-oriented economy… China is also facing severe local impacts from illegal trade of hazardous waste…Gradually change the current growth mode of trade to adjust the relationship between trade, resources, and environment… Levy an environmental pollution tax on export-oriented enterprises with high energy consumption and high pollution, and assign costs for environmental damage to the responsible enterprises… Develop appropriate regulations for and carry out comprehensive EIAs on key market supply chains for raw products entering China… Work with other nations to ensure the honouring of international agreements and international monitoring in order to curb illegal trade in toxic wastes. Take additional steps to eliminate illegal timber trading and other such problems, including activities banned under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).

2008 (Finance) An Environment and Health Fund could be established to help compensate victims of historical environmental problems, or when the responsible party has no civil compensation capability and when it is hard to identify who should be responsible.

2011(Finance) Implement green fiscal reform, including environmental taxes such as a carbon tax and financial policies designed to improve market-based approaches and establish emissions trading platforms.

2011 (Investment and Trade) Develop a green trade and investment system, establish green supply chains, and champion a goal-oriented green transformative strategy for China’s trade and investment…China should introduce trade policies that encourage the development of the green economy. A challenge for China is to consolidate its cooperation with international partners and push forward international collaboration on sustainable development, including…global transfer and application of green technologies.

CCICED Phases V–VI, 2012–2021

2013 In order to fully realize co-benefits arising from economy, environment, and energy measures, it is important to coordinate efforts for the reduction of conventional pollutants, energy conservation, and low-carbon development. Market-based long-term mechanisms, including pricing, taxation, and emissions trading, are important instruments for this coordinated effort. It is further recommended that efforts be stepped up in exploring and creating new funding mechanisms and resources for environmental protection and environmental investments.

2013 (Trade) Strengthen the credibility and independence of the Chinese green product certification system and enhance China’s environmental labelling system…Strengthen sustainable public procurement and give preferential purchase treatment to products from green supply chains…Revise government procurement systems to include new energy and low-emission vehicles and make green supply chains an important indicator for procurement standards.

2014 (Finance) Accelerate and improve the eco-compensation system. Strongly adhere to the principles of “polluter pays”, “those who damage must compensate,” and “those who protect receive benefits.” Enforce mandatory green insurance for certain sectors, such as the exploitation of petroleum and natural gas, petro-chemical industries, iron and steel, and plastic sectors.

2014 (Investment) [Adjust] policies to promote a re-balance between investment and consumption. Promote reform of the fiscal and the taxation system, administration system, hukou system, and social security system to rationalize the expenditure structure of local governments, reduce overinvestment, and improve social security and public service. Improve income allocation structure and reduce the income gap.

2015 (Investment) Ensure that the growth of central fiscal investment in the environment is not lower than the growth rate of fiscal revenue.

2015 (Investment) Establish a National Green Development Fund…[mainly to] support large and medium, mid- to long-term green projects and other pilot projects that have major demonstration effects…[for] clean energy, environmental technology and environmental industries…[use] the leverage of green funds to mobilize more social capital for low carbon and environmental protection projects.

2015 (Investment) Promote green credit, green bonds, and green insurance…Revise the Commercial Bank Law to clarify the environmental responsibilities of banks. Support and encourage financial institutions and enterprises to issue green bonds…Implement a mandatory environmental liability insurance system for high-risk sectors.

2015 Establish a green financing coordination mechanism at the national level, i.e., establish a green financing guidance and implementation entity run jointly by the People’s Bank of China, the China Banking Regulatory Commission, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, the China Insurance Regulatory Commission, and environmental protection and finance departments.

2016 (Trade and Investment) Proactively Lead and Integrate China into Global Green Value Chains…promote an integrated policy package that addresses investment, trade, standards, certification, and capacity building… China should align its green standards with international standards. Advocate for the establishment of global green value chains and help BRI countries to improve their participation capacity.

2016 (Finance and Investment) Establish a ministerial-level China International Development Cooperation Agency to integrate international development aid and South–South Cooperation. This agency would be responsible for mainstreaming the Ecological Civilization concept into all decisions and plans [for international development] …Develop a comprehensive “Green Action Guide for China's Foreign Aid.”

2016 (Finance) Encourage green economy growth by levelling the playing field for clean technology and other green innovations. The slow pace of green taxation reform should be addressed along with subsidy reform that is consistent with the needs for green development. Remove inappropriate subsidies for fossil energy sources. Use measures such as green credit, differentiated water/electricity prices, mandatory environmental liability insurance, and special award funds to support enterprises with sound environmental performance.

2019 (Finance and Investment) Develop a precautionary mechanism for green finance…Establish environmental safeguards and EIAs to mitigate environmental risks of proposed projects. Operationalize the Green Investment Principles. Require the disclosure of environmental and climate-related risks. Encourage public feedback before final project decisions are made…Formulate and implement green finance development strategy; establish a set of comprehensive risk assessment methods and comprehensive management systems to mitigate environmental, climate, social and other risks in all financing and co-financing initiatives.

2020 Improve the assessment methods and payment mechanisms for natural capital and ecosystem services to advance high-quality development of the Yangtze River and Yellow River basins.

2020 (Investment) Explore ways for the China International Development Cooperation Agency to mainstream green practices in all project finance; adopt “do no harm” principles; and increase the proportion of green and environmental assistance in foreign aid for green development in BRI countries.

2020 (Trade and Investment) Adopt measures to promote systematic greening of global soft commodity value chains to avoid deforestation and ecological degradation.

2020 (Investment) Bolster green elements in the “New Infrastructure Stimulus” program…economic recovery [from the COVID-19 Pandemic] presents an opportunity to further expand clean energy and avoid high-carbon lock-in. [The stimulus program should be designed] to strengthen green development by including renewable energy, low-carbon, and resilient infrastructure, building efficiency and upgrading, green urban centres, green technologies, and other relevant areas… [Economic recovery] should be guided by the principle of “no significant harm” to the environment, ecology, and climate. Economic recovery planning should also apply EIAs to green recovery programs and projects.

2021 (Green Finance and Investments) Increase investments and financing in green urban infrastructure projects…Provide capacity-building funds and set qualifications for a green, smart, and participatory urban transition… Provide long-term, clear, stringent, and stable market expectations and an effective price transmission mechanism to support the national emissions trading system. Take account of differences in carbon peaking timetables within and between sectors and regions, and enable market-based approaches to provide price, investment, and other incentives for early action. Clarify the asset attributes of carbon emission rights, promote the establishment of carbon accounts for market players, and improve the disclosure of carbon emissions… Set out clear targets, timetables, and detailed green investment roadmaps to achieve carbon peaking before 2030 and carbon neutrality before 2060. Conduct cost–benefit analyses of proposed carbon-intensive infrastructure, including the analysis of economic and financial risks such as stranded assets. Scale up biodiversity-relevant conservation financing and investments. Highlight ecological protection, conservation, restoration, and regeneration as key focuses of green finance. Further identify the steps needed to ensure public and private finance flows are consistent with biodiversity objectives, supported by conservation finance pilots…Apply financial technology in biodiversity conservation, including establishing “fintech and biodiversity” pilot demonstration areas… Actively identify and subsequently reform environmentally harmful incentives, regulations, spatial planning, subsidies, and other measures… Drawing on international experiences, set up blue economy financing principles, standards, and guidelines in line with China’s conditions.

2021 (Trade and Investment) Identify opportunities for preferential tariffs for sustainable soft commodities and examine means to tackle trade in single-use plastics through the World Trade Organization… Enrich the forms of, and pool of participants in, green investment and financing, and broaden and mainstream the sources of green investment funds for BRI. Scale up financing in sectors such as renewable energy, sustainable storage and power grids, and conservation financing. Establish mechanisms to ensure that future BRI financing and investment will exclude coal projects. Promote cooperation in green energy, green infrastructure, and green finance… In line with project-based green investment and financing management needs, advance a BRI green investment and financing evaluation system based on standards, safeguards, and best Chinese and international practices… Strengthen the communication, cooperation, and information-sharing among overseas investment and financing authorities, ecological environmental authorities, and financial regulatory authorities, and improve the classification management system of BRI investment and financing projects…Work with key ministries to incorporate “green and sustainable” as core risk evaluation criteria into the performance evaluations of financial institutions and project developers.

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    Environment and development governance: CCICED recommendations timeline

CCICED Phases I–II, 1992–2001

Baseline 1993: China should learn from the mistakes as well as the achievements of the industrial countries and build on China’s assets to create a sustainable economy. Environmental considerations should be brought into the centre of economic and social policy making from the beginning.

CCICED Phases III–IV, 2002–2011

2004 Include Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) into the next national five-year plan (2006–2010) and develop a river basin Master Plan for the large river basins…[with] a Master Plan for ecosystem-based IRBM in Yangtze Basin and set up the [multi-stakeholder] Yangtze Development and Conservation Forum.

2006 Reform of the government’s environmental management capacity… Elevate SEPA to full cabinet rank in the government… Elevate SEPA to full cabinet rank in the government… Improve multi-level governance by realigning local environmental management to create a direct line of authority to provincial environmental protection bureaus (EPBs).

2006 China should prepare to take a more active role and international responsibilities in global environmental governance and sustainable development…including active participation in establishing international environment institutions; providing scientific evidence of potential impacts; promoting global sustainable development; making continued efforts in implementing international environmental agreements…

2007 China should strive for strategic transformation of its E&D path for the coming 15–20 years, leading to significant improvement of its ecological environment as well as its economic development…elevating environment protection to the level of a “conservation or ecological culture,” where the objective is building a resource conservation and environment-friendly society.

2008 Create a better mix of government regulation and market-based mechanisms, and between factors favouring innovation and those favouring stability.

2010 Implement green regional development strategies by taking into account resources and environmental capacity, biodiversity conservation needs, and establish within-China regional cooperation mechanisms for ecological protection.

2011 Reform government functions, strengthen its management of public goods and social service functions for green development…Build a better performance evaluation system and mechanisms that strengthen the accountability of government officials for the green transformation of development mode… Government should provide a favourable regulatory framework to facilitate enterprises’ green transformation and encourage enterprises’ active participation in international cooperation.

CCICED Phases V–VI, 2012–2021

2012 Enhance institutional and policy innovation as well as enforcement in order to promote practical implementation of ecological civilization… Define and develop mid- and long-term plans for an ecological civilization at the macro level… Promote integrated institutional innovation towards the direction of green and ecological transformation…Integrate regional environmental capacity, optimize economic structure and layout, and establish a new regional joint control mechanism…expand the six MEP’s Regional Environmental Supervision Centers into Regional Environmental Quality Management Centers.

2013 Establish a high-level leading and coordination mechanism for the construction of Ecological Civilization. Speed up institutional reform for eco-environmental protection management; establish an environmental governance system for unified supervision of all pollutants, all emission sources, all environmental components, and all ecosystems. Establish a regional joint action mechanism that coordinates terrestrial and marine regimes for ecosystem conservation and restoration, and for pollution prevention and control…Improve governance policies for green development and speed up the transformation of environmental governance… Improve environmental governance structure by establishing robust green government-public-enterprise partnerships.

2014 Implement environmental audits for government and party leading officials.

2015 Establish an Environmental Protection Commission of the State Council, with specific environmental protection responsibilities, objectives and explicit responsibilities assigned to various departments, especially departments for overall economic and social development; direct and coordinate ecological protection and pollution control among various departments, inter-provincial regions and river basins; take into consideration the environmental impacts of major national decisions; and conduct monitoring and evaluation of the environmental performance of various departments under the purview of the State Council and local governments.

2017 Strengthen Global and Regional Green Governance…China needs to start early to develop its own Mid-Century Climate Strategy and link it with others. Also, China’s national Carbon Trading initiative could be a model for replication at an Asian regional level…China should create a national strategy that will more clearly provide for green development of its Blue Economy. This strategy will need to focus attention not only on the use of China’s own ocean space, but also on China’s use of the high seas and waters subject to dual rights. Concurrently, China can play an important role in the ongoing implementation of global ocean governance… a Belt and Road Green Governance Mechanism, including information disclosure, public participation, and access to arbitration, should be established.

2018 Develop an ecological civilization approach for China in national and global ocean governance…Establish a national “marine ecological report card” on the health of China’s coastal and marine ecosystems…Develop a national plan of action to restore lost marine ecosystem functions and services. The plan should include actions governed by the Ministries of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Ecology and Environment, and Natural Resources, as well as coastal provincial and local agencies.

2019 Support innovative global marine governance…More attention must be directed to sustainable marine development during the 14th FYP period.

2020 Enhance comprehensive marine governance to promote the resilience of marine ecosystems and support the sustainable growth of the blue economy.

2021 China needs to pay attention to policy coherence across economic sectors, the interplay between regulatory binding targets and market-based pricing mechanisms, and the dynamic role of demand-side consumption… Establish a mechanism that allows for collaboration in the efforts of the government, industry associations and non-governmental organizations, catering businesses, and consumers to tackle food waste…Institutionalize China’s high-level central working group on carbon peaking and carbon neutrality to advance inter-agency and inter- sectoral coordination…Support local governments to formulate an urban sustainable development vision and strategy based on a multi-stakeholder participation process… Improve rural and county green development, including reform of the rural land acquisition system and land transfer system… Give full play to counties as the bridge to link urban and rural areas in terms of industries and resource allocation to synchronize rural revitalization and urban green transformation.

2021 Formulate a comprehensive, national FYP and roadmap to green China’s supply chains…Enrich global marine public goods, and deeply engage in global marine environmental governance.

2021 Integrate green consumption into in-depth, supply-side structural reform to green the “dual circulation” and high-quality development patterns. Incorporate green production and consumption into the national legislative process…Develop a mechanism to allow stronger inter-agency governance and coordination between upstream and downstream entities to advance green consumption…Develop and implement a comprehensive green labelling scheme as the basis of green public procurement practices.

Lessons Learned About Transformative Change

CCICED, from its start, has espoused policies that would lead (sooner or later) to transformative changes in the treatment of E&D issues within government, enterprises, and within the broader society of China and, sometimes regionally and globally. The need for this approach became very evident at various points, sometimes due to “shocks” related to disasters such as those associated with the 1998 Yangtze River flood; chemical spills and explosions like those in the 2005 Jilin chemical plant explosion that created benzene spills into the Songhua/Amur River and the 2015 Tianjin chemical storage explosion; the 2011 oil leakage into Bohai Sea; and various epidemics, including the current COVID-19 pandemic. All of these and many other environmental “surprises” spurred after-the-fact policy action. Often, the groundwork laid by CCICED through its sectoral examinations and its ongoing environmental and ecological problem focus proved to be helpful.

The case for establishing new transformative approaches and policies has most often emerged gradually from a blend of concerns based on changing national and international opinions—particularly when it became apparent there were superior opportunities or important needs not currently being addressed adequately. This is certainly the situation for the complex issues surrounding the low-carbon economy and its relationship to the transformation of the energy sector towards greater efficiency, new energy sources, and the need to decouple economic growth in many sectors away from environmentally harmful energy sources and mechanisms. This certainly has become a very strong driver for transformative change in China, with a great deal accomplished in the past 10 to 15 years. It is not surprising that this topic and its link to climate change and pollution reduction, among other concerns, has risen to such a priority in CCICED’s work at present. The terminology of a low-carbon economy is often expressed in terms such as “synergies,” “win–win,” “new efficiencies,” and “improved outcomes.”

From the beginning to the recently completed sixth CCICED Phase, nature (including biodiversity conservation and natural resource management) and ecological restoration have played a very significant role in CCICED’s work. Over this 30-year period, we have seen dramatic shifts in how ecological protection can be set in place, ranging from logging and fishing bans, transformative shifts in approach towards workable systems for nature reserves, ecological barriers, and integrated river basin and coastal zone management. Ecological restoration efforts pre-date CCICED, but this topic continues to be an important element in our recommendations.

The work has been backstopped and given continuity by the importance accorded to ecology in governance shifts, including laws and regulations, improved administrative arrangements at national to local levels (e.g., 2018 transformation of the MEP Department to become MEE, the 2016 emphasis on ecological sustainability for the YREB), and various fiscal measures. The significance of eco-compensation is highlighted by the frequent reference of this term in CCICED recommendations. CCICED has made recommendations regarding ecological civilization since 2007 and has supported the shifts in national policies resulting from this values-driven approach. One lesson learned is that ecological civilization can provide an umbrella for bringing together various actors within a sector on their green transformation. An example is CCICED’s work with the financial sector in the period 2015–2017 and onwards. The CCICED recommendations involving banks, regulatory commissions, and others in the sector were the basis for a transformative guideline to which they agreed as part of their efforts towards ecological civilization.

Transformative change insights can be of real value when examining issues “at the edge” or on the borders between systems. One of the most difficult situations is the interphase between urbanization and rural vitalization efforts (e.g., Chongqing, many other provincial capital cities, and their suburban areas). Another is the interphase zones between land, rivers and wetlands, and the sea (e.g., flood plains, Yangtze Delta), as well as desertification zones. Suburban and peri-urban areas require their own types of planning and management, including sustainable transportation and other infrastructure as the city expands into rural areas, environmental protection strategies, etc. CCICED has conducted some studies, but it is one of the more difficult themes regarding insights into how transformative change can be channelled into optimal environmental development and how to apply value-driven concepts such as ecological civilization.

Drawing on CCICED’s experience and insights on tackling transformative change as a central focus and need, we suggest considering the following points:

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    For many of the subjects CCICED has covered, there is no single endpoint. More likely, transformative change will be an ongoing effort with changing goals and approaches over years and decades. Therefore, an adaptive planning and management approach is needed. The FYPs, mid-term (10 to 15 years) plus longer-term efforts, such as the mid-century goals and ecological civilization aspirations, are very helpful. China’s vigorous efforts to ensure follow-up from plans to action and to put in place upgraded indicator systems, coordinated planning, and reward systems for achieving E&D goals are helpful. The early successes of the War on Pollution are an example.

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    Transformative change is costly for some Chinese E&D problems, but if full costs of inaction are incorporated and if full costs of health, environmental, or other externalities are included, it may still be cheaper to pursue transformative change pathways. That prevention can be cheaper than the ultimate cost of treatment is another way of making this point. It is perhaps also illustrated by the dislike of some Chinese experts concerning the “environmental Kuznets curve” and the current desire for high-quality development rather than “pollute first and clean-up later.”

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    The time for achieving initial benefits of some transformative change efforts, especially of national “scaling-up” after initial pilot efforts, behavioural change, new technological adoption, or even problem definition, has generally been too long, even measured in decades. There can be multiple factors involved. Common ones put forward include the complexity of decision making, lack of supportive laws and administrative arrangements, inadequate funding and capacity building, vested interests often at local levels or within sectors, and reliance on top-down and non-participatory approaches. The use of leading groups and other special mechanisms to overcome these types of hurdles can be valuable. Illustrations include the YREB, the BTH Region, and other regional frameworks, and the new high-level leaders’ group created in early 2021 under the direction of Vice Premier Han Zheng to ensure the timely meeting of 2030 and 2060 carbon targets to address climate change concerns.

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    A common expression of concern is that green technology often is slow in moving from laboratory to commercialization to meet urgent needs. This is an important concern since in almost all E&D fields there will be greater use of advanced technologies, including “Big Data.” It is also a somewhat surprising concern, considering both China’s successes with wind and solar energy within and outside of China and the short time within which it adopted electric-powered vehicles of many types and sizes compared to many other countries.

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    China’s great reliance on trade and investment, especially after its entry into the WTO and in signing various bilateral and other trade agreements, sped up the economic side but likely slowed at least some of the E&D transformational needs. This point may be disputed since much of the funding for green development depends on trade and investment flows. The relatively slow adoption of green certification and internationally accepted standards, relatively limited acceptance of green market supply chains, and the need for greater attention to sustainable consumption matters are important considerations, especially at a time when China is encouraging reliance on increased domestic consumption for its future economic growth. The need for further greening of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), coupled with continuing green improvements in state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and in operations such as commodities produced by Chinese-owned operations abroad, especially those related to commodities used in China, points to major opportunities for accelerating the pace of transformative change in approach, especially in green development initiatives within BRI countries.

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    It is widely recognized that the major impacts of COVID-19 on all countries also hold the key to some transformative changes, whether related to new forms of globalization, national economic and social recovery, or the need for improved ecological management to prevent future pandemics from happening. The idea of “building back better” appears to be taking hold, and the means to do so are at least partially at hand. Accelerated efforts to meet the UN 2030 SDGs are urgently needed. This will require greater attention to integrated development strategies, no matter how difficult that can be at times.

The foundation for China’s future transformative change continues to be wrapped up in bundling together socially and politically acceptable combinations of institutional capabilities, financing, and legal frameworks to enable innovative change mechanisms to flourish. Improved community and individual participation, plus feedback loops on what is actually working and whether benefits can be clearly defined and delivered, are needed. CCICED’s past experience and insights will be valuable for the future in providing advice concerning the areas highlighted above.