Sri Lanka has enjoyed a wonderfully close relationship with China that has spanned over two millennia, despite the forbidding mountain ranges and threatening oceans that separate the two countries. These distances and the physical obstacles have not, however, prevented the two states from developing close bonds based on mutual interest. Despite constant contacts over this long period, there is no record of China ever attempting to establish a permanent presence in the country or colonize it despite Sri Lanka’s attractive strategic location, natural wealth and comfortable living conditions.

Waves of traders seeking Sri Lanka’s fabled spices, gems, pearls, elephant tusks and other luxury products, and holy monks searching for the sublime teachings of the Buddha (Siddhamuni to the Chinese), sailed to its shores over the centuries from China. Those who came not only left detailed observations, which corroborate our own historical records, they also contributed significant elements of their own languages, cuisine, dress, cultural traits and even some DNA, in certain cases large infusions of it, enriching our own. The contacts with Buddhist visitors from China constitute the earliest cultural exchanges between the two countries.

A History of Mutually Comfortable Neighborly Relations

Our common religion, Buddhism, was the main platform on which the cultural relationship between China and Sri Lanka flourished over the centuries and linked the two kingdoms. The earliest records indicate that the exchanges along the Maritime Silk Road began to flourish from around 207 BC during China’s Han Dynasty. Cultural and religious exchanges blossomed. Technologies, cuisine, agricultural practices and even diseases, like the plague crossed borders along the Silk Road but did not disturb the way of life of the Lankans.

The fourth-century scholar monk Fa Xian from Shanxi, China, who spent two years at the famous Abhayagiriya Monastery in the ancient capital Anuradhapura, left records of complex international diplomatic and trading relations. After spending almost ten years in Northern India, he boarded a trading vessel and headed for Lanka in 410 AD. After two years in Lanka, during which he visited the famous Sri Pada Mountain (Mountain of the Holy Foot Print venerated by Buddhists), he decided to return to his homeland, having watched a Chinese merchant donate a valuable silk fan to the Abhayagiriya dagoba (pagoda). He wrote of the intense homesickness he felt after witnessing this act of devotion by his compatriot. He carried a ship load of religious texts, written mostly in Sinhala, from Lanka to China, which he later translated into Chinese. Later, Amoghavajra, a powerful Buddhist monk, traveled to Sri Lanka and translated the Karandamudra Sutra into Chinese, which he took back to his homeland in the eighth century.

Over the centuries, social, cultural and religious interactions between Sri Lanka and China have thrived and both countries benefited. China was, at the time, a major civilization and, judging by historical evidence, supremely confident in itself, but relatively less known to the other flourishing civilizations further to the West. Distance kept China relatively isolated, both physically and in awareness of other peoples, but the unique natural wealth of Sri Lanka and its Buddhist religious heritage gave it a reputation that far exceeded its geographical size and attracted waves of Chinese traders and Buddhist monks. It is interesting that some emperors themselves were aware of the combination of treasures that Sri Lanka possessed. The enviable geographical location of Sri Lanka, in the very center of the Indian Ocean and at the confluence of the two monsoons, made it the logical meeting place for traders sailing East from the kingdoms of the West (Rome, Greece, Egypt, Persia, etc.) and those sailing West from the kingdoms of the East, (China, Sumatra, Khmer, etc.). The interactions that took place on the island included a myriad of nationalities and traders and conferred on it a larger-than-life reputation. This also brought wealth, making it possible for the Lankans to construct large cities and marvels that were impressive even by modern standards, such as the palace in the sky, Sigiriya and the 130 meter-high brick pagoda, Jethavanaramaya. Tales brought back of the island of Lanka by sailors and traders may have resulted in an exaggerated image in the listeners’ mind, as could be imagined from the Claudius Ptolemy’s first century map of the island of Taprobane. Eratosthenes (276–196 BC) first mentioned Taprobane and the name was later adopted by Claudius Ptolemy (139 AD) in his geographical treatise, referring to a relatively large island south of continental Asia. The Greek geographer Strabo also makes reference to the island, noting that “Taprobane sends great amounts of ivory, tortoise-shell and other merchandise to the markets of India.” Eratosthenes’ map of the known world, c. 194 BC, also shows an island south of India called Taprobane.

The religio-cultural link that was established then and the people-to-people contacts developed have also been the foundation for nurturing future brotherly bonds. As will be discussed later in this paper, today Sri Lanka, serving as a hub for the BRI in the middle of the Indian Ocean, has more to offer than the luxury goods of yesteryear and the sublime doctrine of the Buddha.

The Influence of Two Friendly Neighbors on Each Other

Although it is natural that China would have had a significant impact on a small kingdom like Lanka, as a small country with something vital to give to the world, Sri Lanka has also played a valued role as a cultural partner for China. Chinese traders and Shaolin monks probably introduced Chinese martial arts to Lanka, as did the same monks who bravely ventured across the Gobi desert in search of true Buddhism, armed only with self-defense techniques to ward off waylaying robbers. One of the terms in Sinhala for martial arts is Cheena–Adi, far too close to be a coincidence. Needless to say, kung fu is very popular among young people in Sri Lanka and there is considerable potential for the further development of the sport. Even today, Shaolin Temple in China’s Henan Province maintains close links with key Sri Lankan temples. During a recent visit, the Chief Abbot, Venerable Master Shi Yongxin, the 30th abbot of the Shaolin Temple, which has close links with the state, invited me for tea and spoke fondly of his recent visit to Sri Lanka and of the potential for further expanding temple-to-temple and people-to-people links and exchanges.

The role played by Sri Lanka in China, especially through Buddhism, is illustrated by a number of Chinese records. The Chinese account, The Biography of Bhikkunis, written in the sixth century, details a visit by Sinhala nuns to the imperial capital, Nanjing, to inaugurate the Order of Nuns in China, which still survives in China despite having ceased to exist in Sri Lanka.

Thirteen embassies were sent by the Kings of Lanka between 131 AD and 989 AD to the Chinese imperial court. In 428 AD, King Mahanama sent a model of the shrine of the Sacred Tooth Relic to the Chinese Emperor. The Lankan King also sent an embassy with a valuable statue of the Buddha to the court of Emperor Xiaowu. A piece of the parietal (skull) bone of the Buddha, which apparently was brought over from Lanka in the tenth century, is displayed at the stunning Usnisa Palace Temple at Niushou Mountain in Nanjing. (Interestingly, this was during a period when Lanka was being invaded constantly by South Indian Chola forces).

The Arab geographer Edrisi details the extent of Lanka’s international trade during the time of King Parakramabahu the Great, who also sent a royal princess to the court of the Chinese Emperor. The great Kublai Khan dispatched Marco Polo as an envoy in 1284, seeking the alms bowl of the Buddha, which was venerated by the Sinhala people, but the Lankan King politely refused this request. Marco Polo visited the island twice and proclaimed Sri Lanka to be the finest island of its size in the entire world. The lion statues at Yapauwa, the capital of Lanka in the thirteenth century, were very much Chinese influenced. King Parakramabahu VI (1412–1467) alone dispatched six missions to China, the largest number by a single Sinhala King. The troves of Chinese coins and porcelain that have been recovered from various parts of the country suggest a thriving trade between China and Sri Lanka. A large number of Chinese vessels also lie beneath our waters not too far from the shore, having sunk in rough weather. The largest known wreck is at Godawaya off the Southern coast of Sri Lanka. According to tradition, the White Horse Temple in Luoyang was the first Buddhist temple built in China and has now allocated land within its confines for the construction of a Sri Lankan-style temple. Buddhist temples in the styles of other Asian countries have already been built and plans are already being developed for the construction of a Sri Lankan temple.

Admiral Zheng He visited Lanka six times between 1405 and 1433 during his voyages to the West in the name of the Ming Emperor. During his second visit to Sri Lanka in 1411, Zheng He visited the Upulwan Shrine in Devundara and donated the following: “1000 pieces of gold; 5000 pieces of silver; 50 rolls of embroidered silk in many colors; 50 rolls of silk taffeta in many colors; four pairs of jeweled banners, gold embroidered and of variegated silk, two pairs of the same picked in red, one pair of the same in yellow, one pair in black; five antique brass incense burners; five pairs of antique brass flower vases picked in gold on lacquer, with gold stands; five yellow brass lamps picked in gold on lacquer with gold stands; five incense vessels in vermilion red, gold picked on lacquer, with gold stands; six pairs of golden lotus flowers; 2500 catties of scented oil; 10 pairs of wax candles; 10 sticks of fragrant incense.” (A century and a half later, in contrast, the Upulwan Shrine was looted and burnt down by Portuguese colonists). The Admiral’s visits and his involvement in the replacement of the Lankan king, Alakeshwara, are well-recorded. Parakramabahu VI sent six missions to the Ming court. Zheng He left a carved stone pillar in Galle in 1411 which is now in a local museum. A Lankan prince and his retinue accompanied Zheng He on his return, and the prince ultimately chose to stay in China. The family of Xu-Shi Yin’e living in Quanzhou, Fujian, traces its roots to this royal Lankan prince.

It is clear that Sri Lanka, despite its small physical size, had developed considerable relations through religion, trade and social links, with the Middle Kingdom. The writings of scholars, soldiers, monks, travelers and traders suggest a strong Chinese cultural interest in Lanka from very early times.

Recent Developments

More recently, particularly during the period of domination of Asia by Western powers, many Chinese migrated to other countries in search of a better life. China, which had boasted the biggest economy in the world for centuries, was reduced to a poverty-stricken shadow of its former self to be looted and exploited by a gaggle of Western colonial powers. China was forced to open its borders and coerced to accept opium under the guise of free trade. It is ironic that the concept of free trade had its origins in the Western effort to sell opium to China. In a historical twist of fate, the West is now asking China to block the export of fentanyl and its precursors in the West. (Since 1999, drug overdoses have killed approximately one million Americans). From May 1, 2019, China officially banned all forms of fentanyl and other drugs in the same category, fulfilling the commitment President Xi made during the G-20 Summit.

During this period, Chinese also came to Ceylon (Sri Lanka), then a British colony, assimilated well and settled down to become part of the Sri Lankan Chinese community. Some have since migrated to places such as Australia where Sri Lankan-born Jimmy Shu is now a celebrated chef.

Sri Lanka Gains Independence in 1948 and Renews its Links

After winning our independence from the colonial yoke of Britain in 1948, Sri Lanka was quick to adjust to the changed realities of the world and assert itself. China had also stood up and many other countries in the region had also shaken off their colonial shackles. In 2022, we celebrated the 70th anniversary of the ground breaking Rubber-Rice Pact with China and the 65th anniversary of the founding of diplomatic relations. In 1950, an independent Ceylon became the 13th country to recognize the young People’s Republic of China and, since then, has unconditionally endorsed the One China Policy, a position that no Sri Lankan government has even remotely considered compromising. Subsequently, in 1952 as the Korean War raged, Ceylon breached a Western embargo on the export of strategic materials to China and concluded the Rubber-Rice Pact to trade rubber (listed as a strategic material) for rice. Ceylon agreed to export 50,000 tons of rubber to China at a higher than market price and import 270,000 tons of rice at the normal market price. This agreement remained in effect until 1982.

In the ensuing years, the relationship between our two countries continued to warm. Premier Zhou Enlai, who played a critical role in restoring the relationship, visited Ceylon in 1957 on the formal establishment of diplomatic relations and laid the foundation for lasting and solid ties, which flourished particularly during the stewardship of Prime Minister Mrs. Sirimao Bandaranayaka. Many middle-aged people in Beijing still recall fondly the rapturous reception accorded to Prime Minister Mrs. Bandaranayaka during her visits to China in 1961 and again in 1972, almost a spontaneous external manifestation of the inner warmth that had developed between our two peoples. China, for its part, highlighted the traditional Buddhist connection by sending the sacred tooth relic of the Buddha from Lingguang Temple in Beijing for a short visit to Ceylon in 1961. (Ceylon became a republic in 1972 and restored the ancient name of Lanka). To demonstrate the close ties between Sir Lanka and China, when Chairman Mao died in 1976, Sri Lanka declared eight days of mourning. The Bandaranayaka Memorial Conference Center gifted by China, which serves as the major convention venue in Colombo, stands proudly as a symbol of the bonds developed during this period. The Chinese Cultural Center, an aid project initiated by China, is located in the Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall, and was inaugurated during the visit of President Xi Jinping in 2014. It is seen as a major initiative to foster cultural exchange as part of the strategic plan of the Maritime Silk Road. As in the past, cultural connections continue to play an important role under the reimagined Maritime Silk Road. The Chinese Cultural Center in Sri Lanka is not only the first of its kind built in South Asia, but also the first to be inaugurated by a Chinese head of state. In keeping with the tradition established over the centuries, close links are also being maintained between Sri Lankan Buddhist temples and leading Chinese Buddhist temples such as the White Horse Temple, the Shaolin Temple and the Guanyin Temple in Henan and the Lingguang Temple and the Yonghe Temple in Beijing. In 2021, our Embassy hosted a well-attended annual Wesak ceremony with high-level representatives from these temples in attendance.

Economic and Political Links Strengthened

It is said that Chairman Deng Xiaoping, who led China from December 1978 to November 1989, sent a delegation to Sri Lanka to study the Greater Colombo Economic Commission before creating the spectacularly successful Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, which set the tone for China’s opening up and economic development. China embraced globalization and foreign investments poured in. In 2021, China received USD 168.34 billion in FDI, while China also invested USD 145.69 billion in other countries.

It was not only in assisting Sri Lanka in its economic development that China played a vital role. During Sri Lanka’s conflict with the terrorist organization LTTE, China unconditionally provided arms and other assistance to bolster the country’s military while Western countries withheld armaments as a means of exerting pressure on the government to stop the military advance on LTTE positions. China’s steadfast support contributed in no small measure to the eventual defeat of the LTTE in May 2009 and the elimination of the terrorist threat to its territorial integrity. China also provided unconditional support to Sri Lanka at global fora, including at the UN Human Rights Council and the UN in New York. Subsequently, as the country sought desperately to recover from the devastation caused by terrorist attacks, Western assistance continued to be deliberately withheld, an economically resurgent China contributed magnificently to Sri Lanka’s recovery efforts.

The Belt and Road Initiative

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched by President Xi Jinping in 2014, is intended to herald a new shared future for humanity. Today, it’s a mammoth undertaking stretching across Asia, Africa and Europe with plans to construct roads, railways, ports, and, more recently, health, digital and space projects, creating physical and economic links, and enhancing trade and interconnectivity. However, it is not just a Chinese government initiative, but a collection of many different projects in multiple countries, financed through multiple avenues, including both Chinese and international banks and investment funds. According to a 2019 paper published by the Center for Economics and Business Research (CEBR), the BRI is likely to boost world GDP by USD 7.1 trillion annually within the next two decades. The Information Office of the Chinese government also reports that BRI has created more than 244,000 jobs for locals abroad.

In Sri Lanka, investment made through the BRI has made possible construction of Hambantota Harbor, Mattala Airport, multiple highways, Colombo Port City, the Performing Arts Center in Colombo and Lotus Tower. The Chinese government provided one billion Sri Lankan rupees (USD 5.1 million) for the construction of the Lotus Pond Performing Arts Center in Colombo, which was designed by the Beijing Institute of Architectural Designs (BIAD). The design was inspired by the twelfth-century lotus pond in Polonnaruwa, commissioned by King Parakramabahu. The 350 meter-high Colombo Lotus Tower, which is said to have been inspired by the Lotus Sutra, was built by a Chinese company and is the tallest self-supported structure in South Asia.

China’s own stunning race toward development has been an inspiration for many developing countries, including Sri Lanka. Growing from a poor third world country, having opened up its economy, China has become the second biggest economy in the world, second only to the United States, and has modestly claimed to have reached a moderate level of prosperity. (The real GDP of China in 2020 was USD 14.72 trillion). China’s trade to GDP ratio for 2021 was 37.43%, a 2.84% increase from 2020. In 2018, China exported USD 2.49 trillion in goods, while it imported USD 2.13 trillion. Beautiful highways crisscross the country, catering to an increasing number of privately owned vehicles. China is also the largest producer of electric vehicles and batteries in the world (having produced 3.4 million units in 2021, 57.4% of global EV production), and is home to the world’s largest Tesla plant. China has developed advanced manufacturing capabilities and today it is the world’s main exporter of manufactured goods.

Despite still relying on imported fossil fuels, it is also a leader in solar and wind power technology as well as a pioneer in nuclear and hydrogen power development. (China produces 70% of the world’s solar panels). AI is also becoming a major part of everyday life in China. Sri Lankan students stand to gain much from pursuing studies in Chinese educational institutions, which cost much less than Western institutions. Almost 40,000 km of high speed railway tracks link the cities of this massive country. Cities vie with each other for architectural eminence and sheer glitz. China is surging ahead with cutting-edge technology that reaches into outer space and the depths of the ocean. Far from being the country that could barely feed millions in the 1970s, high-tech modern agriculture has also enabled China to produce an abundance of food for itself and even for export.

Part of cultural exchange through the BRI, the Association for Sri Lanka-China Social and Cultural Cooperation was established in 1997. Among its objectives, consistent with the cultural objectives of the Maritime Silk Road, are promoting people-to-people friendship and mutual understanding between Sri Lanka and China, studying the social and cultural development of China, conducting cooperation with other associations which have the same goals, implementing exchange programs in the social and cultural fields, preparing a plan for promoting Sri Lanka-China sister city programs, widening exchanges and cooperation between the performing and visual arts fields of Sri Lanka and China, developing relations in the fields of education and sports relations and working to build up the friendship and cooperation between Sri Lanka and China women and youth circles. Links have already been established between Colombo and Chengdu and Kandy and Qingdao with other intercity and interprovincial links being explored as we speak.

A Confucius Institute has been established at the University of Colombo with the objective of increasing knowledge and proficiency in the Chinese language and promoting Chinese culture. Hundreds of students have benefited from its services, but the institute also provides opportunities to scholars who seek to engage in research into relations between Sri Lanka and China.

The National Administration of Press and Publication of China has proposed a MoU with the Ministry of Buddhasasana, Religious and Cultural Affairs of Sri Lanka for the translation and publication of the classics of both countries into Chinese and Sinhala, having already chosen 50 Sinhala books and one English book for translation. In addition, the Chinese Culture Translation and Studies Support Network (CCTSS), with the assistance of the Martin Wickramasinghe Trust Fund and the Embassy of Sri Lanka, has already translated “Gamperaliya” into Chinese. Currently, an initiative has been undertaken to shoot a feature film highlighting the bilateral relationship.

In health and disease prevention, the manner in which China responded to the unprecedented threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic has been a lesson for all. The world witnessed in amazement, as China mobilized governmental resources, medical facilities and its technological capabilities, along with its population to counter the threat. As we watched nervously, China brought the dreaded virus under control, starting with Wuhan. Thousands volunteered to help as the state mobilized its massive resource base. While COVID-19 may have been effectively brought under control, new viruses have already begun to raise their ugly heads and how China copes with these threats will be watched with eagerness.

China also contributed massive resources to counter the pandemic in other countries. It provided approximately two billion vaccine doses to the world, 200 million of which as gifts. It has also proposed that vaccines be made a “public good” without the constraints of proprietary rights. Sri Lanka benefited immensely as China provided 26 million doses, 3 million of which were free. Sri Lanka has been able to manage the epidemic effectively and has even opened the country to vaccinated tourists, largely due to the generosity of China, which also dispatched teams of medical personnel to assist other developing countries. At a time when traditional suppliers of drugs to Sri Lanka were attending to the needs of their own people with some even hoarding vaccine supplies, China came to Sri Lanka’s aid. Our people will remember the significant gifts made by China and the vaccines supplied by Sinopharm for a long time to come as a remarkable act of solidarity and cooperation by China and the Chinese people.

In education, over 2000 Sri Lankan students are pursuing university degrees in China. Consistent with the goals of the BRI, they will take their new skills and knowledge home to benefit their own country. Many provinces of China have expressed interest in permitting more Sri Lankans to study in their cutting-edge institutions of higher learning, which is an excellent opportunity to further develop people-to-people contacts and mutual understanding. China has developed so rapidly in the last four decades that many outside have little understanding of China today and student exchanges are a useful way to increase awareness.

Much speculation has been generated about a Chinese debt trap that has ensnared Sri Lanka and of which other countries have been warned. Simply put, China owns less than 10% of Sri Lanka’s external debt and it was Sri Lanka that sought funding from China for its infrastructure projects after it was denied by traditional sources. Sri Lanka needed the funding and China responded to its needs. Recently, Sri Lanka was also placed in a difficult situation as some expressed concerns about the port call of a Chinese scientific vessel. Consistent with its longstanding practice relating to port visits and its sovereign rights, Sri Lanka permitted the vessel to dock at Hambanthota Port.

Sri Lanka will also rely heavily on Chinese travelers to extricate itself from its financial crisis. 169 million Chinese traveled in 2019. If a fraction of this number traveling to Sri Lanka once the Chinese travel restrictions are relaxed, it even will assist Sri Lanka, long considered a tourist mecca, to generate a targeted $10 billion income annually from tourism. Sri Lanka boasts nine UNESCO-listed world heritage sites, including some of the world’s oldest and most revered Buddhist religious sites, which is a big number for a small country. The most visited tourist and religious site in the country is the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha in Kandy, the last capital of the Sinhala kings. The only other known tooth relic of the Buddha is in Lingguang Temple in Beijing.

Ancient Anuradhapura, which was our capital from fourth-century BCE until the eleventh-century CE, with its enormous dagobas (pagodas) enshrining relics of the Buddha, built two millennia ago, and the sacred Bo Tree (pipal tree) that is believed to have been propagated from a branch of the Bo tree at Bodh Gaya under which the Buddha attained enlightenment are key attractions. The fifth-century Sigiriya citadel, with its amazing water and rock gardens and the palace on top of the Sigiriya rock, built by a pleasure-loving king, and its evocative frescoes of comely maidens, continues to be a major attraction.

Over 24% of the country is covered in forest and Sri Lanka has the largest concentration of Asian elephants in the wild (around 7000), which are strictly protected, as well as a large population of whales. It is possible to go whale watching in the morning and drive along dusty tracks in a nature reserve on an elephant safari in the afternoon. The country boasts of some of the cleanest golden beaches in the world and produces a range of mouth-watering sea food dishes. Traditional medicine plays a significant role in the health care of the country.

Reflections

As the BRI matures and more funding is channeled into projects in member countries, criticism may increase. However, the BRI has already addressed some of the early criticisms, including the need to be sensitive to environmental issues, protecting community interests (particularly those of indigenous people), and being sensitive to the political arena. To this end, China has publicly stated that it will no longer fund fossil fuel-based power generation. The expected investment of USD 4–8 trillion will undoubtedly make a massive difference and even those that have little interest in the needs of the developing world are now being forced to join the fray. It is a pity that that they waited until China launched its BRI to find funds instead of acting on their own. In an ideal world, one would expect countries with the ability to work together to help those who, after decades of independence, still cannot help themselves.