Abstract
Carbon is one of the most abundant elements in the universe and exists in many forms. The allotropes of carbon have very different properties due to differences in their physical and electronic structures. The sp2 hybridized allotropes of carbon are typically formed by processing graphite on commercial scale to form graphene, fullerene, and carbon nanotubes. Expanded graphite is a form of processed graphite after exfoliation and heating. This is technically not considered an allotrope of carbon since the physical structure still partly resembles that of graphite, but the material exhibits distinctly different properties.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Balandin AA, Ghosh S, Bao W et al (2008) Superior thermal conductivity of single-layer graphene. Nano Lett 8:902–907. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl0731872
Bannov AG, Ukhina AV, Maksimovskii EA et al (2021) Highly porous expanded graphite: thermal shock vs programmable heating. Materials 14:7687. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247687
Bhowmick S, Banerji A, Alpas AT (2015) Role of humidity in reducing sliding friction of multilayered graphene. Carbon 87:374–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2015.01.053
Bong Lee H, Hyun Noh S, Hee Han T (2021) Highly electroconductive lightweight graphene fibers with high current-carrying capacity fabricated via sequential continuous electrothermal annealing. Chem Eng J 414:128803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.128803
Borah M, Dahiya M, Sharma S et al (2014) Few layer graphene derived from wet ball milling of expanded graphite and few layer graphene based polymer composite. Mater Focus 3:300–309. https://doi.org/10.1166/mat.2014.1185
Budde H, Coca-López N, Shi X et al (2016) Raman radiation patterns of graphene. ACS Nano 10:1756–1763. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b06631
Casimir D, Alghamdi H, Ahmed IY et al (2019) Raman spectroscopy of graphene, graphite and graphene nanoplatelets. In: Wongchoosuk C, Seekaew Y (eds) 2D materials. IntechOpen
Çelik Y, Flahaut E, Suvacı E (2017) A comparative study on few-layer graphene production by exfoliation of different starting materials in a low boiling point solvent. FlatChem 1:74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flatc.2016.12.002
Chen W, Li JT, Wang Z et al (2021) Ultrafast and controllable phase evolution by flash joule heating. ACS Nano 15:11158–11167. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.1c03536
Chen X, Qu Z, Liu Z, Ren G (2022) Mechanism of oxidization of graphite to graphene oxide by the hummers method. ACS Omega 7:23503–23510. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c01963
Ciesielski A, Samorì P (2014) Grapheneviasonication assisted liquid-phase exfoliation. Chem Soc Rev 43:381–398. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60217F
Destyorini F, Irmawati Y, Hardiansyah A et al (2021) Formation of nanostructured graphitic carbon from coconut waste via low-temperature catalytic graphitisation. Eng Sci Technol Int J 24:514–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2020.06.011
Dhawane SH, Kumar T, Halder G (2018) Recent advancement and prospective of heterogeneous carbonaceous catalysts in chemical and enzymatic transformation of biodiesel. Energy Convers Manag 167:176–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.04.073
Dong S, Song Y, Ye K et al (2022) Ultra‐fast, low‐cost, and green regeneration of graphite anode using flash joule heating method. EcoMat 4. https://doi.org/10.1002/eom2.12212
Fang B, Chang D, Xu Z, Gao C (2020) A review on graphene fibers: expectations, advances, and prospects. Adv Mater 32:1902664. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201902664
Ferrari AC, Meyer JC, Scardaci V et al (2006) Raman spectrum of graphene and graphene layers. Phys Rev Lett 97:187401. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.187401
Gonçalves RV, Maraschin TG, Koppe GC et al (2022) Cardanol surfactant/ultrasound-assisted exfoliation of graphite in a water/ethanol solution. Mater Chem Phys 290:126578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2022.126578
Hou B, Sun H, Peng T et al (2020a) Rapid preparation of expanded graphite at low temperature. New Carbon Mater 35:262–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-5805(20)60488-7
Hou Y, Lv S, Liu L, Liu X (2020b) High-quality preparation of graphene oxide via the Hummers’ method: understanding the roles of the intercalator, oxidant, and graphite particle size. Ceram Int 46:2392–2402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.09.231
Hu Z, Cai L, Liang J et al (2019) Green synthesis of expanded graphite/layered double hydroxides nanocomposites and their application in adsorption removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution. J Clean Prod 209:1216–1227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.295
Ishii T, Kaburagi Y, Yoshida A et al (2017) Analyses of trace amounts of edge sites in natural graphite, synthetic graphite and high-temperature treated coke for the understanding of their carbon molecular structures. Carbon 125:146–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2017.09.049
Kamal AS, Othman R, Jabarullah NH (2020) Preparation and synthesis of synthetic graphite from biomass waste: a review. Syst Rev Pharm 11:881–894
Kang JH, Kim T, Choi J et al (2016) Hidden second oxidation step of hummers method. Chem Mater 28:756–764. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b03700
Karthik PS, Himaja AL, Singh SP (2014) Carbon-allotropes: synthesis methods, applications and future perspectives. Carbon Lett 15:219–237. https://doi.org/10.5714/CL.2014.15.4.219
Kauling AP, Seefeldt AT, Pisoni DP et al (2018) The worldwide graphene flake production. Adv Mater 30:1803784. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201803784
Ko S, Kwon YJ, Lee JU, Jeon Y-P (2020) Preparation of synthetic graphite from waste PET plastic. J Ind Eng Chem 83:449–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2019.12.018
Liao K, Ding W, Zhao B et al (2011) High-power splitting of expanded graphite to produce few-layer graphene sheets. Carbon 49:2862–2868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.03.021
März B, Jolley K, Marrow TJ et al (2018) Mesoscopic structure features in synthetic graphite. Mater Des 142:268–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.01.038
Mazela B, Batista A, Grześkowiak W (2020) Expandable graphite as a fire retardant for cellulosic materials—a review. Forests 11:755. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11070755
Méndez-Lozano N, Pérez-Reynoso F, González-Gutiérrez C (2022) Eco-friendly approach for graphene oxide synthesis by modified hummers method. Materials 15:7228. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207228
Mokhena TC, Mochane MJ, Sefadi JS et al (2018) Thermal conductivity of graphite-based polymer composites. In: Shahzad A (ed) Impact of thermal conductivity on energy technologies. InTech
Mondal T, Bhowmick AK, Krishnamoorti R (2014) Stress generation and tailoring of electronic properties of expanded graphite by click chemistry. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6:7244–7253. https://doi.org/10.1021/am500471q
Morton JA, Kaur A, Khavari M et al (2023) An eco-friendly solution for liquid phase exfoliation of graphite under optimised ultrasonication conditions. Carbon 204:434–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2022.12.070
Murugan P, Nagarajan RD, Shetty BH et al (2021) Recent trends in the applications of thermally expanded graphite for energy storage and sensors—a review. Nanoscale Adv 3:6294–6309. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1NA00109D
Nasir S, Hussein M, Zainal Z, Yusof N (2018) Carbon-based nanomaterials/allotropes: a glimpse of their synthesis, properties and some applications. Materials 11:295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11020295
Ng KL, Maciejewska BM, Qin L et al (2023) Direct evidence of the exfoliation efficiency and graphene dispersibility of green solvents toward sustainable graphene production. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 11:58–66. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c03594
Poh HL, Šaněk F, Ambrosi A et al (2012) Graphenes prepared by Staudenmaier, Hofmann and Hummers methods with consequent thermal exfoliation exhibit very different electrochemical properties. Nanoscale 4:3515. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr30490b
Prenzel D, Tykwinski RR (2014) New synthetic carbon allotropes. In: Kobayashi S, Müllen K (eds) Encyclopedia of Polymeric Nanomaterials. Springer, Berlin, pp 1–12
Rashidi S, Esfahani JA, Hormozi F (2022) Classifications of porous materials for energy applications. In: Encyclopedia of smart materials. Elsevier, pp 774–785
Santamaría-Juárez G, Gómez-Barojas E, Quiroga-González E et al (2020) Safer modified Hummers’ method for the synthesis of graphene oxide with high quality and high yield. Mater Res Express 6:125631. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab4cbf
Selezneva O, Orlov V, Shustov P (2020) Oxidized thermally expanded graphite as a raw material for the production of cement composites. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng 880:012019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/880/1/012019
Solfiti E, Berto F (2020) A review on thermophysical properties of flexible graphite. Procedia Struct Integr 26:187–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2020.06.022
Steksova YuP, Berdyugina IS, Shibaev AA et al (2016) Effect of synthesis parameters on characteristics of expanded graphite. Russ J Appl Chem 89:1588–1595. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1070427216100049
Sun L, Fugetsu B (2013) Mass production of graphene oxide from expanded graphite. Mater Lett 109:207–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2013.07.072
Tang M, Wu Y, Yang J, Xue Y (2020) Hierarchical core-shell fibers of graphene fiber/radially-aligned molybdenum disulfide nanosheet arrays for highly efficient energy storage. J Alloy Compd 828:153622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.153622
Tanzi MC, Farè S, Candiani G (2019) Organization, structure, and properties of materials. In: Foundations of Biomaterials Engineering. Elsevier, pp 3–103
Torres FG, Troncoso OP, Rodriguez L, De-la-Torre GE (2021) Sustainable synthesis, reduction and applications of graphene obtained from renewable resources. Sustain Mater Technol 29:e00310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2021.e00310
Tsai J-L, Tu J-F (2010) Characterizing mechanical properties of graphite using molecular dynamics simulation. Mater Des 31:194–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2009.06.032
Vacacela Gomez C, Tene T, Guevara M et al (2019) Preparation of few-layer graphene dispersions from hydrothermally expanded graphite. Appl Sci 9:2539. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9122539
Wang K, Frewin CL, Esrafilzadeh D et al (2019) High-performance graphene-fiber-based neural recording microelectrodes. Adv Mater 31:1805867. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201805867
Wei B, Zhang L, Yang S (2021) Polymer composites with expanded graphite network with superior thermal conductivity and electromagnetic interference shielding performance. Chem Eng J 404:126437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126437
Wei Y, Sun Z (2015) Liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite for mass production of pristine few-layer graphene. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 20:311–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cocis.2015.10.010
Xing B, Zhang C, Cao Y et al (2018) Preparation of synthetic graphite from bituminous coal as anode materials for high performance lithium-ion batteries. Fuel Process Technol 172:162–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2017.12.018
Xu S, Zhang L, Wang B, Ruoff RS (2021) Chemical vapor deposition of graphene on thin-metal films. Cell Reports Phys Sci 2:100372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100372
Yakovlev AV, Finaenov AI, Zabud’kov SL, Yakovleva EV (2006) Thermally expanded graphite: synthesis, properties, and prospects for use. Russ J Appl Chem 79:1741–1751. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1070427206110012
Yang W, Gong Y, Zhao X et al (2019) Strong and highly conductive graphene composite film based on the nanocellulose-assisted dispersion of expanded graphite and incorporation of poly(ethylene oxide). ACS Sustain Chem Eng 7:5045–5056. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b05850
Yemata TA, Ye Q, Zhou H, et al (2017) Conducting polymer-based thermoelectric composites. In: Hybrid polymer composite materials. Elsevier, pp 169–195
Yuan Y, Zhang N, Li T et al (2016) Thermal performance enhancement of palmitic-stearic acid by adding graphene nanoplatelets and expanded graphite for thermal energy storage: a comparative study. Energy 97:488–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.12.115
Yun Y, Park J, Kim H et al (2018) Electrothermal local annealing via graphite joule heating on two-dimensional layered transistors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 10:25638–25643. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b06630
Zaaba NI, Foo KL, Hashim U et al (2017) Synthesis of graphene oxide using modified hummers method: solvent influence. Procedia Eng 184:469–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.118
Zhang D, Zhang W, Zhang S et al (2023) Synthesis of expanded graphite-based materials for application in lithium-based batteries. J Energy Storage 60:106678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106678
Zólyomi V, Koltai J, Kürti J (2011) Resonance Raman spectroscopy of graphite and graphene: resonance Raman spectroscopy of graphite and graphene. Phys Status Solidi B 248:2435–2444. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssb.201100295
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Coetzee, D., Militký, J., Wiener, J., Venkataraman, M. (2023). Comparison of the Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Graphite, Graphene, and Expanded Graphite. In: Militký, J., Venkataraman, M. (eds) Advanced Multifunctional Materials from Fibrous Structures. Advanced Structured Materials, vol 201. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6002-6_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6002-6_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-99-6001-9
Online ISBN: 978-981-99-6002-6
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)