Abstract
STEM education is closely related to national development strategies, attracting attention from most countries and regions. With 30 years of development, STEM education has been implemented in K-16 educational systems around the world. This chapter briefly presents the development of STEM education in China at both secondary and tertiary levels. Chapter sections include highlighting data, relevant national policies, and latest research. This chapter also proposes excellence indicators for STEM education and applies them to measure the performances of STEM education in 10 selected countries. The best practices and inspiring stories sections share the Chinese experience of tackling the global challenge of attracting young talented researchers. It shows that secondary STEM education focuses on integrating new technology with maker education and actively utilizes new media and intelligent technology. Meanwhile, university STEM programs encourage young researchers to engage in innovative STEM research.
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1 Introduction
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) education was first initiated by National Science Foundation (NSF) in the United States (U.S.) in 1986, aiming to develop a highly skilled science and technology workforce. With the fast development of technology, STEM professionals are needed in many fields that support national economic prosperity, including emerging industries such as electric-vehicle production (Bakhshi et al., 2017). According to the STEM Designated Degree Program List issued by the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement in 2016, engineering, biological science, math, and physics are listed as STEM disciplines. This list includes 91 sub-disciplines and 251 majors (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2016). There are 220 STEM majors focusing on research innovation and technology development, which represent physics, chemistry, biology and agricultural science. A noteworthy 44.2% of the 52 disciplines classified by the U.S. Department of Education have STEM majors. Research has found evidence of the positive effects that investment in STEM skills and research and development (R&D) have on GDP per capita (Bacovic et al., 2022). According to International Labor Organization (2020), STEM occupations make up less than 20% of employment in the 69 selected countries, ranging from nearly zero in several African countries to 15% in the U.S. and the United Kingdom (U.K.), and 17% in Austria. Research on STEM talents in various countries and economies still underscore the intense and urgent competition for talents in STEM. For example, the European Center for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP) predicted a significant skill shortage in STEM fields in E.U. countries in 2016 (CEDEFOP, 2016). In 2020, EngineeringUK published the report Educational Pathways into Engineering, which anticipated that the U.K. would suffer from severe competition for STEM talent in the next five years (Armitage et al., 2020). In response to talent shortages and the global competition, STEM education has been implemented in most countries, following the U.S. model. For example, the European Union (EU) promoted STEM education across countries and regions (European Commission, 2015a). 55 universities from 31 EU countries jointly launched the “Opening up Education” initiative and released STEM open-source curriculum to boost students’ STEM literacy (European Commission, 2015b). Australia conducted a comparative study of STEM education development in 2013 (Dobson, 2013) and then released the National STEM School Education Strategy 2016–2026 (Australian government, 2015).
The global focus of STEM education has extended across educational levels and the meaning of STEM education has expanded. For example, the U.S. Department of Defense announced the Defense Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Education Consortium Cooperative Agreement in 2019 to strengthen K-16 STEM education and outreach efforts.Footnote 1 With accumulated practices and experiences in different countries, the goals of STEM education have become more diverse (Li et al., 2020a, 2020b). For example, STEM education includes both the individual disciplines of STEM (i.e., science education, technology education, engineering education, and math education) and interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary programs (Honey et al., 2014; Kelley & Knowles, 2016). Integrated STEM education is embraced by elementary and middle schools and reflected in education reforms in both U.S. (Tanenbaum, 2016) and China (Hu et al., 2017). It is also expected to improve students’ problem-solving skills and implement interdisciplinary learning in class (Johnson et al., 2015). The STEM education movement has increased project-based and problem-based learning across disciplines in K-12 education. Moreover, STEAM education was initiated by Yakmen (2006) and further developed in in Europe (Clarke, 2019) and Australia (Harris & De Bruin, 2017) to focus on creativity and critical thinking in learning. “STEM + ARTS = STEAM” was released by Culture Learning AllianceFootnote 2 in the U.K. in 2014, emphasizing the demand for fostering students’ problem solving and innovation skills. However, Aguilera and Ortiz-Revilla (2021) conducted a systematic review of STEM/STEAM literature and questions the justification of replacing STEAM for STEM in fostering students’ creativity.
The STEM movement spread to China around 2015. The first national survey of STEM education, Chinese STEM Education Research Report, was published in 2019 by STEM Education Research Center of National Institute of Education Sciences (NIES). The report showed that even definitions of STEM education vary according to different scholars, whereas cultivating students’ creativity and practical competence are widely agreed on NIES (2019). STEM talents must be equipped with basic disciplinary competencies, innovation ability, STEM literacy, and teamwork skills (Zheng & Zhang, 2018). The report points out that, STEM literacy is performed mainly in science, technology, engineering, and math disciplines. Instead of simply combining the four subjects together, STEM literacy requires people to utilize science, technology, engineering, and math knowledge comprehensively in practice to identify and solve authentic problems, to create new technologies and products to deliver more benefits for human beings. In recent years, with the innovative utilization of modern technologies such as manufacturing technology, information technology, and computer technology applied in education, many elementary and middle schools in China have carried out STEM activities such as learning with robotics, 3D printing, and maker education. Nevertheless, due to the lack of systematic structures and effective strategies, STEM education in China still faces challenges in subject integration, teaching innovation, teacher development, and effective evaluation. (NIES, 2019).
The development of the STEM education in China and the world focus on developing a diverse STEM-educated workforce to further strengthen national prosperity and competitiveness (National Science Board, 2022). The analysis in this chapter focuses on STEM workforce development and uses the term STEAM education interchangeably. This chapter first compares STEM education development in different countries. Given the accessibility and international comparability of data, a set of STEM excellence indicators are developed to analyze and assess STEM education in 10 countries, including eight OECD countries: the U.S., the U.K., Germany, France, the Netherlands, Japan, the Republic of Korea (ROK), and Australia, as well as two emerging economies, China and Russia. The chapter also sheds light on Best Practices, Inspiring Stories, Latest Research, and National Policies of STEM education in China. This chapter intends to enrich the literature on STEM education in China, and highlights the global challenges facing STEM education.
2 Highlighting Data
This section reviews data and information on STEM education in China and provides a comparative analysis of China and counterpart countries. To capture the overall development of STEM education at both secondary and tertiary levels, the middle school students’ academic performance in the STEM subjects, learning time invested, and STEM teachers’ educational background, as well as the scale of bachelor’s degrees awarded in STEM disciplines are presented.
2.1 Junior Students’ Math and Science Performance in PISA
Achieving competence in math and science during elementary and secondary education prepares students to obtain post-secondary STEM degrees and STEM jobs (NSB, 2010), which in turn is conducive to national economic prosperity. This section analyzes 15-year-old students’ math and science performance for 10 different countries based on OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) tests.
2.1.1 Math
In PISA, mathematical literacy refers to the ability of an individual to identify and understand the role of math in the world, to make informed mathematical judgments, and to use and engage in mathematical activities to meet the needs of one’s life as a concerned, thoughtful citizen. China ranked first in terms of mathematical literacy in 2009 and 2012. Nevertheless, in 2015, Chinese students slipped to 6th place, lagging behind Singapore and Japan. In 2018, Chinese students surpassed Japanese students and once again became top-ranked in the world. As shown in Fig. 1, the math scores of students in China’s participating regions in 2018 presented significant improvement over 2015, while the other countries did not show significant changes. Three Asian countries, China, Japan and ROK showed advantages in math; the Netherlands led European countries, while the U.S. lagged behind.
2.1.2 Science
In modern society, it is of vital importance for students to understand science and technology’s roles in leading both individuals lives and public decision-making. Scientific literacy thus serves as an essential quality for young people today when entering the workforce. PISA’s assessment of scientific literacy reflects the extent to which 15-year-old students master lifelong learning ability in science when they finish their compulsory education. In 2009 and 2012, the average score of Shanghai students ranked 1st in scientific literacy among all participating countries and regions. However, in 2015, China was behind Japan and other countries. China overtook Japan and led the group again in 2018. The performance of Japan, Australia, and Russia all dropped slightly. Among the 10 countries, Russian students under-performed in science (Fig. 2).
2.2 Junior Students’ Learning Time Invested in STEM
Along with the outstanding results achieved by Chinese junior students in math and science, they also spent significantly more time on learning. According to PISA 2018, Chinese junior students spent much more time on learning comparted to students in other countries. In particular, students with Level 1 proficiency in math spent 6.10 h in math learning every week, and the numbers were 6.22, 6.54, 6.98, 7.13, 6.82 for students in levels 2, through 6 respectively. Learning time is much higher than Japanese counterparts correspondingly (4.06, 4.26, 4.64, 5.06, 5.40 and 5.61), and that of OECD average (see Fig. 3).
Source OECD (2018a)
Average number of class periods in math, by PISA math proficiency levels and jurisdiction (2018).
Chinese students invested much more time in science learning and even more time in math. As is shown in Fig. 4, students at Level 1 spend 5.20 h on science learning, and the number are 5.22, 6.17, 7.76, 8.96 and 9.35 respectively for those students in Level 2, through 6. Comparatively, Russian junior students rank 2nd in learning time, level 5 students spend less time than the level 4 Chinese counterparts. And Level 1 Chinese students spend more time on science learning than that of level 6 in OECD countries, which is much higher than that of the U.S., ROK, Japan, France and Australia, etc.
Source OECD (2018a)
Average number class periods in science, by PISA science proficiency levels and jurisdiction: 2018.
The data above measure only the time of junior students spend in school, excluding after-school activities. However, excessive study tasks and extra tutorial services in China heavily affect students’ mental and physical health. Under such context, Chinese government issued a series of guidelines to ease the burden of excessive homework and off-campus tutoring for students undergoing compulsory education, endeavoring to elevate schools’ education teaching and service performance, and to reduce the burden of homework and off-campus tutoring, thereby also reducing related household education cost and parent burdens (the State Council, 2021). However, the effect of this policy remains to be seen.
2.3 Educational Background of STEM Teachers in Junior High Schools
Teachers play a crucial role in students’ learning. The majority of math teachers in junior high schools in China hold a bachelor’s degree. In 2020, for example, 561,551 math teachers (85.64%) held undergraduate degrees, while 21,872 (3.33%) held master’s or higher degrees. However, it is evident that an increasing number of teachers held postgraduate degrees (see Fig. 5). The data of science teachers show a similar profile in China, however, the percentage of science teachers holding master’s degrees or higher degrees is 4.03%, about 0.7% higher than that of math teachers.
The Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) provides information on international teacher education backgrounds at junior high school level (Grade 7–9). Math teachers with master’s or higher degrees in OECD countries averaged for 47% and 52% for the U.S. For science teachers, 52% hold master’s or higher degrees in OECD and 84% in France. (National Center for Science & Engineering Statistics, 2018). By contrast, fewer than 5% of math and science teachers in China had master’s or higher degrees in 2020 (see Fig. 6) (MOE, 2020a). There is a significant gap between Chinese math and science teachers and their counterparts in this regard. The same is true when China compares to Japan and ROK.
One of the reasons that China falls behind is due to the Chinese education system. Teacher Law of the People’s Republic of China promulgated in 1993 stipulated that, to be qualified to teach at a junior high school or vocational high school, one should graduate from a normal college, a tertiary vocational education institution, or other higher institution. (National People’s Congress, 1993). It was not until November 2021 that MOE amend the Teacher Law to require a bachelor’s degree in teaching or related subjects from a normal college or university as the minimum qualification to teach at elementary and secondary education levels (MOE, 2021a). This suggests that it might take a long time to increase the number of teachers at Chinese schools to hold master’s or higher degrees. It can also be argued that the credential gap between Chinese math and science teachers and their counterparts in developed countries will not disappear in a short term (Yao et al., 2021).
2.4 Bachelor’s Degrees Awarded in STEM Fields
The scale of bachelor’s degrees is a comprehensive and important indicator used to measure the outcomes of STEM education at tertiary education level. China boasts the largest number of STEM graduates in the world, and the number of STEM graduates is increasing every year as China’s higher education becomes more accessible. In 2019, the gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education reached 51.06%, realizing a great leap from a mass to high participation (universal) higher education system. In the same year, the number of Chinese students with bachelor’s degrees in STEM fields hit a record high of 1.55 million, increasing 28.74% compared with 2015. The U.S. has the second highest number of STEM graduates globally and has seen a growth year over year. The number of STEM graduates reached 449,900 in 2019, a 21.73% increase from 2015.
Figure 8 demonstrates that, while the percentage of traditional engineering graduates has declined in recent years, engineering still has the largest number of graduates in China. The proportion of graduates in information and communication technologies (ICT) has been on a rise, accounting for one third of undergraduate students. The number of math and science college graduates remains fairly steady around 17%.
3 Excellence Indicators
3.1 Design
STEM excellence indicators are designed to highlight the outcomes of STEM education, aiming to analyze STEM education development and its features in different regions across the world, which also provide scholars and policy makers useful information to further promote STEM education and its quality.
While definitions and expectations of STEM education vary between countries, the goal of developing highly skilled workforce in STEM fields is shared among different education systems. Taking the fact that education is a continuous process in life, the indicators include characteristics of STEM education from middle schools to postgraduates (see Table 1) with the goal of representing both academic achievements and the scale and proportion of STEM talents. Research suggests that both academic performance and their career awareness influence students’ decisions to pursue STEM careers. For example, the EngineeringUK report Educational Pathways into Engineering (2020) found that both underperformance in STEM and limited knowledge of the engineering profession impacted interest in engineering and students’ future career choices and (Armitage et al., 2020). Moreover, with scientific, technological, and industrial revolutions in recent years, innovation capacity has become more and more valued. The next indicator focuses on the numbers of academic papers published in STEM fields, indicating innovation and research output. The final metrics focus on the percentage of STEM graduates and P&D personnel.
3.2 Definitions and Sources
In this chapter, education degrees, including the bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees, are defined by the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) (OECD, Eurostat & UNESCO Institute for Statistics [UIS], 2015). STEM education includes four categories defined by OECD, namely natural sciences, math and statistics, information and communication technology, and engineering, manufacturing and construction (OECD, 2021).
3.2.1 The Numbers of Medals in STEM Olympiad
At the secondary education level, the number of Olympic awards in STEM disciplines is counted to represent student academic achievement. The total medals awarded in 5 STEM disciplines (Physics, Chemistry, Math, Biology, and ICTs) in 2021 are compiled from the Olympiad official websites.
3.2.2 Students’ STEM Career Expectations
PISA tests include the students’ survey on participated 15-year-old students’ future career choices. This study includes two STEM-related occupations, “science and engineering” and “information technology” (IT), in PISA survey. Studies show that students’ career expectations in middle schools will greatly affect career choices in the future (DeWitt et al., 2011; Hurst & Good, 2009). The latest data are retrieved from the PISA 2018 test.
3.2.3 The Number of Graduates in STEM Fields
To enhance scientific and technological innovation capacity, countries set higher requirements for STEM workforce. In response, the selected indicators focus on the numbers of master’s and doctor’s degrees awarded in STEM fields. The latest data are compiled from OECD and Educational Statistics Yearbook of China 2019.
3.2.4 The Proportions of STEM Degrees Awarded
Percentages of graduates in STEM fields at all educational levels also reflect the educational outcomes in the STEM fields. The percentages of STEM graduates with bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees are all calculated based on the latest data retrieved from OECD and Educational Statistics Yearbook of China 2019.
3.2.5 The Percentage of R&D Personnel
The ultimate goal of STEM education is to provide high quality STEM workforce. It is important to know the proportion of actual STEM workforce. However, there is no consistent definitions of STEM-related jobs internationally, neither available nor comparable data for all the 10 countries. Therefore, in this chapter, the number of R&D personnel is employed to indicate the scale of STEM workforce. This data are retrieved from the “full-time equivalent (FTE) of personnel” in the latest factsheet 2019 published by UIS. The statistics refers to the full-time staff involved in the research and development work, who are engaged in improving or developing concepts, theories, models, techniques, tools, software and operating methods. The data as one of the key indicators representing national innovation investment have been widely used in mainstream innovation indicators reports, such as Global Innovation Index 2021 published by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (2021) and National Innovation Index Report 2020 released by Chinese Academy of Science and Technology for Development (2020).
3.2.6 The Numbers of STEM Journal Papers
In response to the growing attention on innovations, the total papers published in STEM fields are included as well. Data are retrieved from ClarivateFootnote 3 in 2021, which divides disciplines into 22 categories. This study includes 20 STEM categories, excluding two non-STEM disciplines (“economics & business” and “social sciences”).
3.3 Findings
3.3.1 STEM Olympiad Awards
Middle school students’ performance in five Olympiad disciplines serves as one of the representations of STEM excellence. According to the data released on the official website of the Olympiad,Footnote 4 for the past five years, Japan has led the 10 countries in medal count, and in the past two years, China, Russia and the U.S. have caught up and tied for the first place while the U.K. saw a slight decline.
In terms of gold medal count, China has led the 10 countries for the past five years, and ROK, Russia and the U.S. have also hold clear leads. Over the past five years, Russia and the U.S. have seen a significant increase in gold medals, placing second and third respectively in 2021. ROK, Japan and Britain, however, saw their counts fall slightly (see Fig. 9).
Source Compiled from IMO (2017–2021); IPhO (2016–2021); IChO (2017–2021); IBO (2017–2021); IOI (2017–2021). Notes The 2021 Physics Olympiad was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in the absence of statistics on its official website
The total number of gold medals in five STEM disciplines’ Olympiad awarded to middle school students in ten countries.
In terms of performance in each discipline, China, Japan, ROK, and Russia led the league in all the five disciplines. The U.K. was slightly behind in math and chemistry. Japan did particularly well in IT. The performance of the Netherlands can be hardly termed ideal in comparison with its counterparts, with four subjects at the bottom except biology with a relatively high score. France ranked bottom in terms of biology, but it performed well in math (see Fig. 10).
Total medals in the five disciplines’ Olympiad awarded to middle school students in the past five years (2017–2021) Source Compiled from IMO (2017–2021); IPhO (2016–2021); IChO (2017–2021); IBO (2017–2021); IOI (2017–2021). Notes Considering the statistical consistency of the five disciplines, participators from Taiwan and Hong Kong were not included in the number of Chinese winners. Medal count covers gold, silver and bronze medals with honorary awards not included
3.3.2 Students’ STEM Career Expectations
Comparing the results of the recent two PISA tests (2018 and 2015) (see Fig. 11) shows an increase in the percentage of middle school students wanting to pursue STEM-related careers by age 30. The U.K. overtook the U.S. in this measure in 2018. Russia and Australia also showed fast increases, both overtaking the U.S. in 2018. The U.S. remained roughly stable in both surveys (15.1% in 2015 and 15% in 2018). The percentages of students in China wanting to pursue STEM-related career (8.8% in 2015 and 14% in 2018) remained lower than the average of OECD countries (11.4% and 15%), but with the gap narrowed, China’s percentage surpassed Germany, Japan and ROK in 2018.
In terms of middle school students choosing information technology related careers, Russia was ahead of other countries (4.1% in 2015 and7% in 2018) for both years. China saw an increase in the percentage of students wanting to choose information technology careers (from 2.1% to 4%), surpassing the OECD average level (2.6% in 2015 and 3% in 2018) in 2018.
3.3.3 The Proportions of Bachelor’s Degrees Awarded in STEM Fields
STEM undergraduates account for the largest segment among all the undergraduates in China, with the proportion going to reach 40% in recent years (see Fig. 12). Since 2016, China surpassed Germany become the top among the 10 countries ever since, and followed by Germany (35%), ROK (near 30%), the U.K., Russia and the U.S. In the past five years, the Netherlands, Australia, the U.S. and Russia have all seen modest growth.
In terms of disciplines, the percentage of bachelor’s degrees awarded in engineering, natural science, and information technology disciplines vary among countries. In 2019, for example, STEM learning was concentrated on engineering, manufacturing, and construction, as graduates majoring in these fields accounted for 65%–80% of the STEM graduates in countries including Japan, Germany, Russia, and ROK. In the U.K., the U.S., France, and Australia, 40%–55% of STEM graduates chose natural sciences, math and statistics. China witnessed a high proportion of graduates in ICTs at 35%, while a low percentage in science at around 15%, second only to Germany and Russia (see Fig. 13).
Source OECD (2019b); MOE (2019a). Notes Chinese STEM graduates consist of science and engineering. Engineering is composed of ICTs and other engineering majors. ICTs majors include electrical appliances, electronic information, automation and computer, and other engineering majors refer to 27 categories such as Mechanics. Japan’s ICTs graduates are scattered across other fields
Percentage of engineering, information and science graduates in 2019 (%).
3.3.4 The Number of Master’s Degrees Awarded in STEM Fields
After overtaking Russia in 2017, China has consistently topped the world in terms of the number of STEM postgraduates. As shown in Fig. 14, the U.S. ranked second worldwide, with roughly 153,000 for three consecutive years. Russia was far ahead of other countries in 2015 and 2016, but it has witnessed a significant decline in recent years. There were 238,000 STEM postgraduates in China in 2019, 1.6 times that of the U.S. Moreover, this figure has steadily increased year by year, with 24,000 more in 2019 than in 2015, realizing an increase of 11.17%.
3.3.5 The Proportions of Master’s Degrees Awarded in STEM Fields
China has maintained the highest percentage of STEM master’s degree recipients, with the figure maintaining more than 40% in recent years (see Fig. 15). Japan was the next with a ratio of one-third. The third place went to Germany, steadily keeping at 30%. Russia ranked fourth, with a significant increase in 2018.
In terms of the percentage of master’s degrees in engineering (including engineering, manufacturing, construction, and ICTs) and science (including natural science, math and statistics), those majored in engineering in China, Australia, Germany and Russia all accounted for more than 80% (see Fig. 16), while in the Netherlands and the U.K., the largest proportion went to those majored in science, both beyond 50%.
3.3.6 The Number of PhD’s Degrees Awarded in STEM
China and the U.S. are home to the largest number of doctoral students in STEM, with the number of doctoral graduates steadily increasing year by year, the gap between the two countries is nevertheless widening at the same time. In 2015, China had 29,707 STEM doctoral graduates, 775 more than that in the U.S.; and by 2019, the number had reached 36,946 doctoral graduates, and widening the gap to 6,241 (see Fig. 17).
3.3.7 The Proportions of Doctoral Degrees Awarded in STEM Fields
China had the largest proportion of doctoral degrees in STEM fields, approaching 60% in recent years (see Fig. 18). The second was France. Although it remained above 60% until 2017, the ratio declined sharply in the past two years. The U.K. ranked third, with steady year-on-year growth, most recently reaching 50%. Germany and Australia took fourth and fifth place respectively.
At the doctoral level, doctoral graduates in engineering-related fields in China, ROK and Japan took the largest share at home, each exceeding 60% (see Fig. 19), with the proportion in ROK reached nearly 70%. In France, Germany and the U.K., those in science-related fields account for the highest ratio, with each above 60%.
3.3.8 The Numbers of R&D Personnel
The proportion of full-time equivalent (FTE) of research and development (R&D) personnel in every million populations in 2019 is presented (see Fig. 20). ROK had a far higher proportion than any other country, followed by the Netherlands, Germany, and Japan. In comparison, Russia and China were far behind other countries.
Source WIPO (2021)
Full-time staff involved in the research and development work in 2019.
3.3.9 The Number of STEM Journal Papers
As one of the critical outputs of STEM education, the number of STEM papers reflects the progress of national STEM innovation. China has witnessed a rapid increase in the number of STEM papers year by year, rising from 357,800 in 2017 to 615,900 in 2021, with an increase of 72.13%. Internationally speaking, China surpassed the U.S. for the first time in 2021 to become the world’s largest STEM paper producer (see Fig. 21). In the same year, the number of STEM papers published in China was 3.44 times that of the U.K. and 5.55 times that of Japan.
3.4 Discussions
Based on the statistics shown above, the scores of excellent STEM education are standardized by valuing the country with highest achievement of each indicator as 100, and value the rest countries accordingly. The data used in this section is the latest available. Among them, both the proportion and scale indicators used data of 2019, the career expectations of 2018, the Olympiad results and journal papers of 2021.The 10 countries are ranked in terms of STEM education excellence as following: China, the U.S., Germany, the U.K., Russia, ROK, France, Australia, Japan, and the Netherlands (see Table 2). China ranks first not only in the number of graduates receiving STEM master’s and doctoral degrees and the proportion of STEM undergraduates, postgraduates, and doctoral graduates, but also on the performance of middle school students winning Olympiad medals. In terms of the number of researchers and Olympiad medals ROK topped the list. The U.S., Russia, and Japan all performed well in the Olympiad, while the U.K. acted outstanding in STEM career expectations of middle school students. Though Germany did not lead the 10 countries in any single indicators, its comprehensive performance earned it the third place in general. The European countries and Australia all suffered low numbers of STEM graduates at both undergraduate and post-graduate levels. This finding is consistent with CEDEFOP’s skill report in 2016 (CEDEFOP, 2016) which found that entry requirements and dropout rates are high at STEM disciplines at upper-secondary and higher education. “Some countries also suffer from ‘brain drain’ as STEM professionals emigrate for better jobs elsewhere.” (ibid) However, the rates of STEM undergraduates in Germany are high, which is the second place among 10 countries. Most European countries and Australia show the relative advantages on the number of doctoral graduates.
Differently, Asian countries (China, Japan and ROK) are particularly outstanding in ICTs, leading in the number of middle school students winning Olympiad rewards, the proportion of graduates with master’s and doctoral degree and academic papers published, which could be attributed to the differentiated competition strategies of Asian countries in STEM.
When demographic factors are excluded, the competitive advantage of all countries, from doctoral graduates to R&D personnel is declining, with the exception of ROK, Japan, and the Netherlands. It is also interesting to notice the different development patterns among the countries. China shows a different pattern from the others, which are high in producing master’s and doctoral graduates in STEM, but low in middle school students’ STEM career expectations and actual proportion of R&D personnel. This phenomenon could be related to “credential inflation” in China, which has led to many graduate students’ not pursuing careers in their majors. Although ROK and the Netherlands are comparatively low in the number of STEM graduate students, they still show an upward trend of producing STEM practitioners, from master’s to doctoral level and turning out to commitment in R&D. Japan is very competitive with master’s students in STEM fields. Germany shows a steady pattern all the way from middle school to R&D. The U.S. and Russia still show the features of “leaking waterpipes”, both of which are high at middle school students’ STEM career expectations, and decreasing their competitive advantages through master’s and doctoral graduates, and low in R&D.
As for academic achievement, China and the U.S. outperformed at both the secondary level and the number of academic papers produced in STEM fields. Comparatively, ROK and the Netherlands both published fewer STEM papers. However, it is important for STEM education to contribute workforce in STEM fields, both sufficient in quantity and high in quality. The U.S., Germany, and the U.K. show relative advantages in terms of proportion of R&D and research papers in STEM fields.
4 Best Practices
There are some common global challenges, such as attracting young students, involving scientists and practitioners in STEM education, and seizing opportunities offered by the news media. In response, this section presents best practices and experiences in promoting STEM education in China.
4.1 Strengthening the Development of Innovative and Outstanding Workforce in Basic Disciplines
In order to meet Chinese major strategic demands, it is critical to have well-educated and innovative young talents in basic disciplines, such as math, physics, chemistry, biology, etc. Therefore, Chinese government has carried out reforms in student admissions as well as curriculum to develop innovative workforce in basic disciplines across higher education.
Since 2009, MOE has organized top universities to establish training centers for developing young talents in basic disciplines, known as the Young Talent Program 1.0. For example, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) set up Zhiyuan CollegeFootnote 5 in 2010, with the latter committed to cultivating innovative talents that will play a leading role in China’s socio-economic development and in global scientific and technological advancement. With the support of MOE, SJTU initiated the “Top Students in Basic Discipline Cultivation Plan”, a pilot program in accordance with the national education reform. Faculty at the college are world-leading experts and outstanding professors, including Nobel laureates and Turing Award winners. “Zhiyuan Honors Curriculum” has been set up to guarantee its teaching quality, featuring a “curiosity-driven” model. Both seminar and discussions groups are employed to create interdisciplinary learning environment. Meanwhile, different approaches have been adopted to sustain students with a thirst for knowledge, especially for those top 10%. These approaches include strict qualification examinations as well as flexible and competitive approaches to allow excellent students to join the class. As a result, 618 graduates in the first seven years went on further studies in top universities at home and abroad.
Many top universities, like SJTU, have been selected and engaged in the Young Talent Program 1.0 and trying different ways to improve their educational quality. From 2012 to 2018, 5,500 graduates graduated, and 9,800 undergraduates were supported by the program. The graduates have demonstrated a strong interest in basic discipline research, and 97% of them have pursued further studies in basic disciplines and related fields. Students in this program show potential to become future scientific leading figures. The participating students published a total of 2,029 papers in SCI journals and won 5,788 awards.
In 2020, MOE further initiated the enrollment reform and carried out a pilot scheme in some universities, known as Strengthening Basic Disciplines Plan (China Education Daily, 2020). The vision of the plan is to shift the practice of evaluating students simply by examination results to a comprehensive evaluation of students. It aims to select and cultivate students who are interested in serving the major strategic needs of the country and have excellent comprehensive quality or are outstanding in basic disciplines. In the admissions system, the Strengthening Basic Disciplines Plan selects two main groups: students with excellent performance in the college entrance exams (the Gaokao) and a small number of “genius students” who are prominently talented in certain disciplines. Admissions reforms allow many students to access education in basic disciplines, breaking through the limitations of the college entrance exams.
China’s science and technology innovation enterprises also play an active role in developing an innovative workforce. Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Finance of China (2022) jointly issued the policy to encourage science and technology innovation enterprises to build a favorable environment for innovative talents in basic disciplines in 2022. For example, Huawei, a Chinese tech giant, cooperates with top universities (e.g., Huazhong University of Science and Technology) and local universities (e.g., three engineering universities in Hubei Province) to further promote the cultivation of new engineering talents.Footnote 6 Also, Huawei built vocational colleges like Huawei ICT Academy with Shanghai Sanda University in 2018. Moreover, many innovative companies also offer new technology equipment and build “smart classrooms” with new technology to support the students’ STEM competence development in the higher education institutions. Furthermore, innovative companies also organize in-service training to their employees, improving the quality of the STEM workforce. For example, Huawei launched the Genius Recruitment Program to recruit brilliant youth from around the world in 2019. In 2020 and 2021, Huawei employed 26,000 fresh graduates, including more than 300 “talented youths” as defined by Huawei, who boast special achievements in math, computers, physics, materials, chips, intelligent manufacturing, chemistry, and other related fields and who aspire to become leading figures. Huawei said it would provide talented youngsters with excellent mentors, global vision, platforms, and resources, and more than five times remuneration.Footnote 7 With Huawei as the representative, Chinese innovative companies recruit young talents in the field of science and technology globally with high salaries, encouraging outstanding graduates to work in science and technology industry, and attracting more young students to choose science and technology majors.
4.2 Scientists’ Engagement in Science Education in Elementary and Middle Schools
As an important strategy to enhance young students’ science literacy, China has systematically organized and facilitated scientists to lead youth science education activities. The scientists are supported to deliver courses that can be integrated with school science education and suitable for young students. The courses focus on inspiring students’ scientific interests, fostering their innovative spirits and competencies, enhancing their understandings of scientists and scientific spirit. For example, Zhejiang Provincial Department of Education has organized the 100 Scientists in Elementary and Middle School Classrooms program in the province since 2022 (Zhejiang Provincial Department of Education, 2022). By inviting famous scientists (including experts and scholars in other fields), courses are offered across the province, allowing students to interact face-to-face with scientists. The content of the courses is designed around the themes of life navigation, highlighting the value guided scientific practices, inspiring young students’ scientific interests, and explicitly introducing scientific minds. It is also designed to enhance students’ innovation abilities and raising their cultural awareness.
This program has been officially launched in February 2022. Shi Yigong, President of Westlake University, delivered the “First Science Lesson” themed “On Young China” to elementary and middle school students in the province, guiding them to understand what science is and how to learn science well, and encouraging them to explore the science and actively engaging and participating in national development and scientific innovations. Currently, the 100 Scientists in Elementary and Middle School Classrooms program has become an important activity in Zhejiang Province, integrated into the curriculum and teaching plan of elementary and middle schools across the province. The 90-min lecture is delivered once a month (Zhejiang Provincial Department of Education, 2022). The interaction between scientists and teenagers has become a part of the formal school curriculum. Through live broadcast and interactive Q&A with teachers and student, all elementary and middle school students can learn “in the same class”, including the students in rural and underdeveloped areas.
4.3 New Media to Promote Science Popularization to Young People
In recent years, with China’s mobile internet development, new media including social media platforms and short videos has become popular especially with young people. New media has become an important way for science engagement and publication, including STEM online courses. The use of new media has not only opened channels for popular science knowledge to reach the public but also become an important tool to ignite the interest of youth in STEM.
The new-media-based science popularization can be roughly categorized into three forms. The first form is general scientific contents, delivered in the form of short videos and usually contributed by laypeople or whoever is interested. The content covers a wide range of entertainment-oriented, easy-to-understand knowledge, without guaranteed scientific validity. The second form is science classes offered by people with relevant higher degrees or science tutors, targeting audiences who are interested in further studies, including the students preparing for college entrance exams or graduate school entrance exams. The third form is lectures offered by leading academics. Prominent academics in various fields are invited to deliver lectures for public with authority and validity in contents. For example, Zheng Zhao, Professor of physics at Beijing Normal University, has created an account called “Zheng Zhao Introduces Physics” on the Bilibili video website (a popular Chinese video sharing website), which attracted more than 75% of the audience aged from 18–35. Professor Zhao talked the origin of the universe and the life of Stephen Hawking, popularizing physics knowledge for ordinary netizens. The most popular videos of Zhao include the formation of black holes and how to prove the general relativity theory.
In addition to the individual contributors, science and research institutes are also actively exploring new channels and ways of science communications. Institute of Physics at Chinese Academy of Sciences (IPCAS), a top research institution for basic and applied research in physics in China, has launched a series of popular science videos on its official website. For example, the column of “Understanding Physics in the Clouds (Yun Li Wu Li)” has been created for young students, in which scientists teach the history and basic knowledge of science in the fields of sound, light, electricity, and magnetism (IPCAS, 2022a). Meanwhile, a series of popular science cartoons for children, “Dr. Marmot”, focus on the scientific phenomenon in daily life and present in an interesting and relaxing manner. In November 2014, the institute’s WeChat official account was created, which was the first Chinese research institution utilizing social media account to publish popular science content (Wu, 2022). The official account gained 100,000 followers in the first year, of which more than 70% were students aged 14–26 (Wu, 2022). To further promote science communication with teenagers, IPCAS has set up a “Q&A” column on their official web account to answer the most popular questions from teenagers in the comments every week. Later, two other columns, “Seriously Play” and “Online Science Day”, have been set up, with the former demonstrating, explaining small physics experiments and illustrating a certain physics knowledge or phenomenon, and the latter introducing the history and anecdotes of physics development (Wu, 2022). In March 2019, to adapt to the fragmented learning style of youth groups nowadays, IPCAS created an official account on Bilibili, gaining favor among teenagers by cleverly designed small scientific experiments and live science broadcasts full of creative ideas. Now, the account has released 870 short science videos and gained 1.833 million followers (IPCAS, 2022b). In January 2022, IPCAS launched a science popularization program for elementary and middle school students, “Science Open Class”, featuring more than 20 scientists from the institute. Academic physics knowledge has been transmitted to the teenage students in a relaxing and vivid manner, providing the opportunity for students to get closer, understand and get in touch with physics. This has generated a wide impact. In March 2022, IPCAS was selected as one of “the First National Science Education Bases in 2021–2025.” In June 2022, the institute held “Public Science Day 2022” online. The broadcast livestream ran nonstop from 12:00 a.m. to 22:00 p.m. (IPCAS, 2022c). Academicians, young scholars, and celebrities gathered together to present an amazing scientific event that teenagers could embrace. Follow the examples of IPCAS, higher education and research institutions have actively participated in the online science communication and public engagement.
5 Inspiring Stories
This section tells the stories of a Chinese female astronaut, a world-leading scientist, and a technology enterprise CEO, who have made in STEM fields and also actively contributed to the STEM education for public and talents.
5.1 Wang Yaping: Nurturing Students’ Passion for Technology Innovation Through Space Classes
On December 9, 2021, Shenzhou-13 astronauts Wang Yaping, Zhai Zhigang and Ye Guangfu started the first lecture of China’s space education brand activity “Tiangong Class”, the second space class from Chinese astronauts and the first teaching activity on the Chinese space station. As China’s first teacher teaching from space and the first female astronaut boarding on Tiangong-1, Wang Yaping stood on the “highest podium” during the flight of Shenzhou X and Shenzhou XIII manned missions in 2013 and 2021 respectively, giving two lectures to Chinese elementary and middle school students, planting the seeds of pursuing scientific dreams in their heart. It is a great chance to present peculiar physical phenomena and impart scientific knowledge during the flight. “As a female astronaut, it has always been my dream to deliver a class for children”, Wang said (Wang, 2022). In order to achieve the best teaching effect, she had revised the lecture scripts several times, constantly rehearsed, repeatedly experimented to simulate the demonstration process, and read multiple books on curriculum pedagogy, educational psychology, and other fields in just one month (People’s Network, 2013). The lecture content was about the feature of object movement in the microgravity environment. In 2013, Wang Yaping and Nie Haisheng displayed some basic physical rules including Newton’s first law, Newton’s second law, the phenomenon of weightlessness in space, the law of conversation of angular momentum, surface tension of the liquid, etc. Through the experiments, students intuitively understood physical phenomena that are rarely seen on Earth, which deepened their understanding of basic physics principles. In 2021, Wang Yaping, together with several astronauts, vividly showed the amazing phenomena in the fields of cytology, including motion, and surface tension of liquid in the microgravity environment and highlighted the scientific principles behind the experiments. Meanwhile, Wang and other astronauts interacted with teachers and students on Earth, answered questions around manned space technology, space flight, space science and astronauts’ work and life in space.
The two livestreamed classes have had a great social impact in China, helping youth to explore space, enabling them to be more passionate about the space programs, and inspiring their aspirations for space and enthusiasm for learning science and technology. After the “Tiangong Class”, the students from Beijing No. 4 Middle School wrote a letter together to Wang in space, and received a reply a few days later, in which Wang depicted the amazement of flying over the motherland and having a bird’s-eye view of the picturesque landscape and said she felt a strong sense of responsibility of being a taikonaut. She expressed sincere encouragement to the scientific visions of young students, “I earnestly hope that more youngsters can join us and carry on the mission. As long as you have a dream, pursue it, and build your dream spaceship with wisdom and sweat, you will definitely be able to celebrate the launching moment of your dreams and fly to the vast starry sky” (Xinhua, 2022). Years after Wang returned, she keeps receiving letters from students who aspired to be astronauts, some of whom are already enrolled in aerospace programs, and some even become Wang’s colleagues, contributing to Chinese space industry. Wang’s space lectures and interactions not only spread the knowledge and culture of manned spaceflights, but also stimulated young people’s curiosity about science and inspired more students to establish their future aspirations to join scientific undertakings.
5.2 Zhang Chaoyang: Letting the Charm of Physics Shine Through the Innovative Short-Video Platform
Zhang Chaoyang (Charles Zhang), CEO of Sohu, also known as the godfather of the Chinese Internet enterprise, has become popular again in recent years as a “physics teacher”. At the age of 17, Zhang was admitted to the department of physics in Tsinghua University. After graduation, he went to the U.S. to pursue his doctoral degree in physics at MIT and he won the “Tsung-Dao Lee Scholarship” established by Dr. Tsung-Dao Lee, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, and continued his postdoctoral research there. At the end of 1995, Zhang returned to China and founded the first Chinese Internet enterprise with venture capital funds in 1996. The first product was launched in 1998 when the company changed its name to Sohu, becoming one of the four most popular websites in China in that time. It has now developed into an Internet enterprise specializing in new media, communication and mobile value-added services. On November 26, 2021, Sohu ranked 19th in “China’s Top 100 Internet Enterprises with Comprehensive Strength”, and this was the ninth consecutive year for it to enter the top 100 list (Internet Society of China, 2021). Zhang’s experience as a successful Internet entrepreneur has encouraged many young people, and his career trajectory also represents the career diversity in STEM field.
In 2021, Zhang started his live-streaming physics course on Sohu; and the series of “Zhang Chaoyang’s physics class” have aired more than 30 episodes so far.Footnote 8 As a well-known entrepreneur, Zhang’s courses have attracted crowds of young people. In 2022, Zhang’s classes moved from cyberspace to the off-line classroom, where he taught audience how to derive the theory of relativity and wave equation, making courses went viral once again. With the help of new media shaped by technological innovation, he spread scientific knowledge, stipulated the youngsters’ interests in science, and promoted education with science and technology. In his offline class, Zhang once talked about his understanding about science and technology, “We should think of the basic concepts such as speed, energy, basic definitions and rules when facing problems, which is the essence of physics and math. Science must be built on the calculation and orders of magnitude. That’s what makes it a good and hardcore science!” Zhang’s love for science makes his life more endurable. As he stated, Zhang hopes that his physics classes can inspire audience to be curious and willing to understand the mystery of the world. “Since the birth of modern science, human beings have accumulated abundant knowledge in just a few centuries, which requires to be known.”Footnote 9With the support of new media, hardcore science bloggers represented by Zhang, are passing scientific knowledge, spirit and passion on to the new generation.
5.3 Shi Yigong: Exploring New Approaches to Cultivate Technological Talents
In the field of biological science today, Shi Yigong is undoubtedly a leading figure. As the laureate of the Future Science Prize in life sciences, Shi is a world-renown expert in the field of apoptosis, protein dephosphorylate, and SMAD protein signal transduction. As the founder of Westlake University, Shi has brought new thinking to the higher education reform and a new practice of cultivating scientific and technological innovation talent.
As a world-class scientist, Shi found his research interests during his undergraduate studies. He showed his passion for science at a young age and was recommended to join China High School Biology Olympiad during his years at Henan Experimental High School, one of the leading middle schools in Henan province. He won the first prize in the national competition and was then recommended to be admitted into the Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology of Tsinghua University. It was during his study time at Tsinghua University that he deeply felt the charm of biology. With immense zeal and excellent performance, he graduated with bachelor’s degree in 3 years in 1989. In 1995, Shi received a doctorate in molecular biophysics from the School of Medicine at John Hopkins University and continued his postdoctoral research at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in the U.S. Shi’s success in scientific research frontier has encouraged many young students to devote themselves to scientific enterprises.
Recalling his study time, Shi thought highly of the experience of his undergraduate studies and was determined to cultivate young scientists. In 2008, resigned from Princeton University as a Full Professor, Shi returned to China, shifted his focus from experimental research to talent cultivation, and took the role of the Dean of Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology at Tsinghua University, where he guided a batch of high-quality and high-level young talents. On April 6, 2018, Shi founded Westlake University, the first government-supported and private-run new research university in China, to develop the innovative cultivation of top talents in basic science. Shi has continued his efforts to improve higher education by cultivating young talents with innovation abilities in STEM fields at multiple universities. Westlake University aims to cultivate top innovative talents and future leaders with a strong sense of social responsibility. Instead of employment-oriented development, the university advocates paying more attention to the cultivation of talents and commitment of socially responsible research. As Shi said, “We hope that in one or two decades, in Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, there will be a world-renowned higher education institution with Chinese characteristics, and that is Westlake University. It will be home to a batch of the most outstanding scientists in the world, cultivate the most excellent young talents and engage in cutting-edge basic and applied research. Westlake University also aims to explore scientific research and education systems and mechanisms in line with China’s national conditions, supporting the sustainable development of China’s high-tech industry as a powerful engine, and making China’s contribution to world civilization!”Footnote 10 The university now has more than 600 doctoral students and gathers over 100 experts in different disciplines from all over the world.Footnote 11 By March 2022, the university has set up two campuses, three sub-colleges, and five undergraduate majors. It has achieved world-leading research findings in the field of structural biology. In 2022, the university will enroll undergraduate students for the first time. Many top scientists in China, like Shi, has committed to the process of improving higher education in STEM fields, based on their own experience of scientific practices.
6 Latest Research
This section reviews the recent STEM education research published in Chinese academic journals from 2012 to 2021. There are 534 articles selected from core journals in Chinese Social Sciences Citation Index (CSSCI), further analyzed by CiteSpace V software with keyword co-occurrence and cluster analysis.
6.1 General Overview
Based on China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database, the proportion of STEM education papers over all the Chinese educational papers published in a decade (2012–2021) are calculated and shown in Fig. 23. Overall, the proportion of STEM education-related topics is increasing constantly, showcasing a booming trend in the last five years.
Source Compiled from search results from CNKI
Proportion of China’s STEM education research in the past decade.
The high-frequency keywords of STEM education research in China are identified as the “U.S.”, “maker education”, “science education”, “basic education”, “core literacy”, “teaching model”, “interdisciplinary”, “artificial intelligence”, “curriculum design” and “teaching design” (Table 3). Further analysis with the cluster analysis shows that the STEM education research in China is dense and connected, without obvious branching structure (Fig. 24). The different research topics are interrelated and form nine major research clusters. After reviewing the literature within the clusters, three themes are emerged as follows: studies of international experiences, local practices and teaching models, and integration with maker education.
Source Compiled from search results from CNKI
Clustering view of STEM education research keywords in China from 2012 to 2021.
6.2 Focusing on International Experiences
There are many studies focused on reviewing the international experiences of developing STEM education, especially from US. These introductions of international experiences draw the developing trends of educational levels, educational settings and practices.
Firstly, in terms of educational levels, Chinese researchers have shifted their focus from K-12 to tertiary education. Since the National Science Board (2007) first stressed the development of STEM education across all levels (National Science Board, 2007), STEM education has been implemented in preschool, K-12, tertiary, and vocational education (Ma & Cai, 2018). Chinese researchers first focus on basic education and review educational objectives, curriculum, assessment, and teacher training related to STEM education (i.e., Xia et al., 2016; Yin & Wang, 2017). The studies introduced the best practices on combining theory with practice, building social synergy, cultivating excellent teachers, and aligning K-12 education with higher education (Wang & Li, 2017) have been identified. In recent years there has been an increasing focus on STEM in higher education. Following similar analysis frameworks on K-12 education, scholars analyze tertiary STEM education in the U.S. (Lin & Zhuo, 2021; Ye, 2021), including STEM teaching models and training approaches in undergraduate and graduate phases (Liu & Zhuang, 2021; Xue & Wu, 2021). Meanwhile, researchers also pay a particular attention to the cultivation strategies of science and technology talents (Bai, 2020), and review mechanisms of quality assurance on STEM education at higher education levels (Li & Zhao, 2019; Wang et al., 2019).
Second, the focus on educational settings has shifted from school education to informal contexts. For example, Yang and Zhuo (2016) made an early introduction of how STEM education in informal settings in the U.S. meet students’ intellectual, social, and emotional development needs. The convening of the Symposium on Informal STEM Education in 2014 and the release of the keynote report, STEM Learning Is Everywhere: Summary of a Convocation on Building Learning Systems (National Research Council [NRC], 2014), marked the informal STEM education as a new focus in the U.S. Later, the evaluation and indicator system of off-campus STEM education outcomes has also attracted Chinese researchers’ attentions (Chen & Liu, 2017; Zhao et al., 2019).
Third, the focus has shifted from curriculum and instruction to policies and socio-cultural backgrounds. Previous research focuses on how to integrate STEM into national curriculum standards, textbooks, classroom teaching and instructions (Cheng & Zheng, 2015), and school systems (Li & Zhao, 2014). Researchers introduce STEM education strategic plans in the U.S. (Ji, 2016; Jin & Hu, 2017) and interpret them from an educational sociology perspective, discussing the global competitiveness (Zhang et al., 2020). This macro-level research interest aims to provide insights for China’s indigenous theoretical construction and practice innovation.
6.3 Exploring Local Practices and Teaching Models
Recent research also shows scholars’ interests on teaching and learning of STEM in the Chinese context. Most STEM education research in China is nested under science education research field, and align with the educational reforms in China.
First, STEM education practice at the secondary education level in China serves the purpose of ‘core-literacy’ oriented educational reform. Chinese researchers regard STEM education as a new strategy of science education with integration and concreteness (Li, 2022). For example, Cui et al. (2017) and Zhang et al. (2017) identify the unique values of STEM education for core literacy, such as setting an authentic context for knowledge building, improving problem-solving skills, and critical thinking development. Moreover, by placing STEM education under the vision of China’s science education reform, researchers systematically explain the role of STEM education in facilitating the cultivation of high-quality science and technology talent in China (Tan et al., 2015). Chinese scholars intend to view STEM literacy from a comprehensive perspective, with particular focus on developing integrated knowledge, skills and attitudes for twenty-first century talents (Song et al., 2021), as well as transferrable skills (Lei et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2020). By contrast, international researchers advocated STEM education for both comprehensive practices and discipline-based education. For instance, Council of Canadian Academies (CCA, 2015) defines STEM competences include basic subject knowledge, practical skills and cutting-edge knowledge. Tumbarello (2013) underscored the STEM literacy includes solving STEM-related issues at individual, social, and global levels.
Second, interdisciplinarity is a core characteristic of STEM education in China. Researchers highlight the development of STEM-integrated courses in curriculum design, which emphasis on using interdisciplinary knowledge to solve the authentic problems in real world (Feng, 2016; Li & Lv, 2021). Students are expected to engage in knowledge integration and problem solving effectively (Dong & Zhuo, 2019). With interdisciplinary concepts at the core, scholars make efforts to eliminate disciplinary separation and build bridges in teaching practice (Cao, 2018; Qin & Fu, 2017). For example, Li (2019) proposes interdisciplinary research to support knowledge building and the consistent teaching, curriculum design and assessment. This trend in China is consistent with integrative STEM education globally, coinciding with the “interdisciplinary” and “problem and project-based contexts” trends in “decentralized-unified” continuum of STEM education as constructed by Nadelson and Seifert (2017).
Third, researchers focus on different approaches in delivering STEM in science education. Commonly advocation for project- and problem-based learning strategies (PBL) (Dong & Sun, 2019; Shen, 2018) and inquiry-based teaching (Zhang et al., 2017). Project-based learning has the advantage of simulating expert research in the process and focusing on the practical application of what have learned (Sawyer, 2014). Chinese researchers used PBL as a bridge between subject content and problems in reality, serving as an important pathway for STEM education delivery (Zhou et al., 2016). Moreover, along with the advocacy of “future literacy” for citizens in the digital age, Chinese STEM education adapts to the digital age and cultivate students’ STEM literacy and innovative practical ability accordingly (Wang, 2015), promoting the use of intelligent technology to empower STEM education innovation (Zhong et al., 2019).
Fourth, Chinese researchers recently advocated the expands of STEM practices on building collaborative STEM ecosystem (Fu & Liu, 2016; Zhu & Lei, 2018) and equal accesses issues. However, while the international community focus their research on equal opportunities of STEM education in terms of gender bias (Weeden et al., 2020), ethnicity and social economic status (Weis et al., 2015), Chinese scholars (i.e., Li et al., 2020a, 2020b; Shi & Zhao, 2020) in 2020 started to address the problems of STEM education in the under-developed area in China and unbalanced development between urban and rural area (Xu et al., 2021).
6.4 Research on Integrating STEM Education with Maker Education
Following the trend of educational reforms using information technology, Chinese research on STEM education shows an emerging trend of integrating maker education in recent years. Chinese researchers have been intensively studying the motivations and foundations for integrating and promoting maker education and STEM education.
At first, maker education and STEM education were relatively independent; their characteristics and drawbacks have been discussed in depth by Chinese researchers. According to Meng et al. (2020), maker education is featuring the use of technical tools and equipment in project practice and often pays little attention to scientific concepts and principles. STEM education, as a typical interdisciplinary science education pattern, is deeply involved in scientific understanding, while the integrated application of emerging technological tools in teaching remains insufficient (Meng et al., 2020). Yang and Ren (2015) point out that, although the two modes are of different origins with different focuses on teaching methods and outcomes, they both aim at cultivating thinking skills and developing comprehensive literacy. They both emphasize real situations and active student engagement. The integration of STEM education and maker education from the perspective of constructivist teaching theory has been recognized by the global education community. For example, Halverson and Sheridan (2014) believe that such an education model that reorganizes disciplinary learning and technology application is of value to students’ deep learning and development from the perspective of “learning by making”. Based on this consensus, Chinese scholars explore the integration and complementary development model of STEM and maker education. Maker education’s emphasis on creation and output provides an effective supplement for STEM education; thus, STEM education can evolve with the support of the rich media and technological resources of maker spaces. On the other hand, STEM focuses on systematic knowledge, which provides a theoretical foundation and skill base for the cultivation of innovative talents (Wang et al., 2016) in maker education. For example, Liang and Zhao (2017) claimed that STEM’s focus on multi-disciplinary integration and the idea of project-based learning can guide the innovative development of teaching activities in maker space. The extension of STEM education’s boundaries and its integration with other education patterns highlight the Chinese characteristics of STEM education development. However, the integration with maker education also brought unique challenges for STEM education in China. Du (2021) raised the awareness of the value of STEM education in utilitarianism and excessive marketization context in China.
7 National Policies
The development of STEM-related fields has been considered as the key to constant innovation, economic growth, and international competitiveness. Most developed countries and economies have systematically implemented STEM education policies to meet their strategic demand for a highly skilled workforce. This section briefly reviews the STEM education policies in the U.S. and Europe, and then introduces the China’s STEM education policies.
7.1 STEM Education Policy in the U.S. and Europe
The U.S. as the global pioneer in STEM education, has been extensively studied and researched by others. Since 1986, the U.S. has issued a series of policies and strategies to promote the STEM education practices, with two distinctive features. First, in the U.S., the science related departments, such as the National Science Board (NSB), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), have partnered in the development and implementation of STEM education policies, ensuring the professionalism of its educational content. For example, NSF issued Undergraduate Science, Math and Engineering Education report (NSF, 1986), also known as Neal Panel’s Report, in which STEM education is mentioned for the first time. Second, the U.S. policies on STEM education are tightly tied with its national competitive strategies. In 2015, the strengthening of innovation capabilities and the development of educational technology is reaffirmed in the new version of New Strategy for American Innovation: Creating Shared Prosperity (shortened title, New Strategy for American Innovation). In December 2015, President Obama signed Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), explicitly identifying STEM as key to educational progress. The U.S. also established the Committee on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Education (CoSTEM) which is dedicated to coordinating national STEM development strategies. The White House released two 5-year plans for STEM education in 2013 and 2018 consecutively (National Science and Technology Council, 2018). The U.S. Department of Education and American Institute of Research released STEM 2026: A Vision for Innovation in STEM Education in September 2016 (Tanenbaum, 2016), identifying the development of STEM education in children’s primary education phase as one of eight challenges to achieve the educational visions of the next decade. In 2022, the U.S. Department of Education launched “YOU Belong in STEM”,Footnote 12 an initiative to galvanize the broad STEM education ecosystem for all young people from Pre-K to higher education. With supportive policies, the development of STEM education in the U.S. has realized “vertical extension” from kindergartens to universities and “horizontal expansion” in the cooperation among STEM schooling, society and communities.
The European Union (EU) has also actively issued policies and guidance for its members promoting STEM education. In response to its problem reflected in PISA test, namely the shortage of talents in STEM fields, and public skepticism about scientific and technological development, the EU STEM coalition has been established to support strategies and plans for the advancement of STEM education in member states. The Framework for Science Education for Responsible Citizenship published in 2015 by the European Commission underscored the cultivation of students’ scientific literacy; and in 2017, School Development and Excellent Teaching for a Great Start in Life (European Commission, 2017) was issued to vigorously advocate STEM education development. In 2019, the European Commission published Science and Scientific Literacy as an Educational Challenge (European Commission, 2019b), providing guidance to member states in science education policies formulation. Based on the continued strategy of lifelong learning and the digital education development plan, the document highlights the development of interdisciplinary STEAM education at all school levels (European Commission, 2019b). Different from the U.S., the EU focuses more on enhancing positive images of science and reforms educational assessments to attract young students to enroll in STEM fields. In 2020, Assessment of Transversal Skills in STEM (ATS STEM), an innovation policy pilot project supported by the EU (Butle et al., 2020), implemented in eight EU countries, involving 12 educational institutions and governmental organizations. The German government has intensified efforts in vocational education and paid attention to students’ interests and career so as to meet the STEM talent shortage in the industry 4.0 era. In 2019, German government released a new STEM action plan, MINT in the future: BMBF’s MINT Action Plan to improve its vocational education in the new era (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2019). The U.K. emphasizes students’ learning of math and science subjects, highlighting the rise of STEM career awareness and the development of STEM culture in elementary schools.
With regards to national policies on STEM education, both the U.S. and the EU focus on developing an interconnected STEM education ecosystem. For example, implementing STEM education policies in the U.S. involves cooperation with governments at all levels on resource integration, teacher training and information platform construction, as well as the engagement of under-represented groups (National Science Board, 2022). The German government has issued STEM education plans to build an “education chain” to integrate social resources, teacher training, school education, and employment. The plans also encourage and support the involvement of youth, women, and other minority groups to participate in STEM fields.
7.2 STEM Policy at Secondary Education Level in China
To meet the demand for science and technology talents to promote national development and enhance the country’s international competitiveness in science and engineering field, China has issued a series of STEM-related education policies to strengthen the STEM workforce, especially on innovations, at both secondary and tertiary levels.
7.2.1 Developing STEM with Education Informatization
Developing students’ STEM competence at a young age is crucial for cultivating innovation talents. At the secondary education level—the “critical phase” of STEM education, STEM education policy is an important component of the overall education modernization strategy in China, which ensures relevant infrastructure development. In particular, the development of STEM education has been aligned with the development of IT and AI.
The development of STEM education in China has synchronized with education informatization in China. The country’s 13th Five-Year Education Plan for Informatization (2016–2020) issued by MOE in 2016, which required the exploration of new educational strategies. “Some regions with good conditions should actively explore the application of information technology in new educational strategies such as interdisciplinary learning (STEAM education), and maker education (MOE, 2016b). With regards to STEM education, the policy particularly encourages engineering and technology. In January 2018, MOE officially classified 3D design, open-source hardware, robotics programming, and AI into the new national curriculum standards and made them compulsory for high school students. In May 2018, MOE issued Education Informatization Action Plan 2.0, pointing out the urgency to shift from tool-based thinking to an artificial intelligence mindset (MOE, 2018b). In November 2019, MOE unveiled Guidelines on Strengthening and Improving Experimental Teaching in Elementary and Middle schools, which further advocates the integration of programming education and artificial intelligence education with teaching and learning in class.
The related policies also include developing an optimal educational environment for STEM education. In July 2016, MOE issued Guidelines on Further Improving Educational Equipment in Elementary and Middle schools in the New Era (MOE, 2016c), which clarifies the government support for the construction of comprehensive laboratories, characteristic laboratories, and educational maker spaces. In November 2019, MOE further issued Guidelines on Strengthening and Improving Experimental Teaching in Elementary and Middle schools, aiming to improve students’ observation, practical, creative thinking, and teamwork skills (MOE, 2019b). It also indicates that elementary and middle schools should focus on the integration of experimental teaching with multidisciplinary education, programming education, maker education, artificial intelligence education, and social practice. The national policies also regulate the teaching and learning time of STEM activities in schools and encourage the inclusion of STEM activities in formal curriculum and after school activities. On the one hand, it is recommending STEM in after school activities. In February 2017, MOE issued Guidelines on After-school Services for Elementary and Middle School Students, encouraging schools to carry out science activities, establish student clubs and hobby groups (MOE, 2017b). On the other hand, elementary and middle schools are encouraged to integrate STEM into regular curriculums. MOE has released new standards for curriculum in junior and senior high schools since 2017, and in junior high schools in 2022. The new curricula clearly state the core literacy for STEM-related subjects, requires the inclusion of interdisciplinary content in lessons, and encourages the cultivation of innovation ability.
7.2.2 Improving STEM Teaching Quality in Middle Schools
Teachers are important to education as being one of the sources of its thriving development. However, China’s STEM education suffers from an insufficient number of qualified STEM teachers. According to a survey of teachers in Grade 8 (Tian et al., 2021), only 64.4% of biology teachers have biology teaching qualifications and only 54.9% of geography teachers hold degrees in geography, while physics teachers with physics teaching qualifications accounted for 84.8%. Geography teachers in middle schools remain insufficient and classes are often taught by teachers responsible for other subjects, according to the Report on Development of China’s Science Education (2019) (Wang & Li, 2020). Moreover, 52.7% of teachers have not participated in teacher training since 2010. The report shows the lack of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and scientific content knowledge among STEM teachers, who also lacking sufficient in-service training. Most STEM teachers have been teaching science programs for less than five years, indicating the high mobility and lack of stability of STEM teaching force. In addition, it has been found that there are significant differences between urban and rural areas in curriculum resources, teaching, and professional development (Hu et al., 2017).
To improve the quality and quantity of STEM teachers and bridge regional and urban–rural gaps, a series of targeted policies have been published by MOE. For example, since 2010, MOE has been implementing the National Teacher Training Program, which seeks to improve the teaching quality and skills of teachers including those who teach science (MOE, 2010). The professional and information literacy of science teachers in Chinese schools have been significantly improved, especially those in rural and remote areas. The Outline of the National Plan for Medium- and Long-Term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) released in 2010 emphasizes enhancing teaching quality, to “strictly manage teacher qualification, improve teacher quality, and strive to develop a proficient and energetic teaching force with noble characters, professional skills and reasonable structure that is of high-quality” (the State Council, 2010). MOE issued Curriculum Standards for Teacher Education (Trial) in 2011 and Professional Standards for Middle School Teachers (Trial) in 2012, representing measures in policy to promote the development of professionalization of the middle school teaching workforce and improve the quality of teacher training. At the beginning of 2018, Chinese government issued Guidelines on Comprehensively Deepening the Reform of Teaching Force Development in the New Era, outlining a comprehensive blueprint for the development of teaching force, with emphasis on the need to “comprehensively improve the quality of teaching force in elementary and middle schools” (the State Council, 2018). In May 2021, MOE issued The Standards for the Professional Competence of Secondary Teachers (Trial), aiming to further advance the subject development of teaching and improve the quality of those major in teaching, thereby enhancing the ability of teachers from the very beginning (MOE, 2021b). In 2022, MOE issued specific requirements to strengthen teaching quality in basic education levels (MOE et al., 2022), including STEM fields. In addition, in order to expand the supply of teachers in underdeveloped areas in central and western China (Xi, 2021), nine ministries jointly launched the Targeted Training Program for Outstanding Teachers in Less-developed Areas of Central and Western China (referred to as the Outstanding Teacher Program) in July 2021. It is targeted to cultivate nearly 10,000 undergraduate students majoring in teaching every year for 832 poverty-stricken counties and their peripheral areas in central and western China.
7.3 Reform of Undergraduate STEM Education in China
In the last two decades, China has experienced rapid socio-economic transformation, which has led to increasing demands for updated knowledge and skills in the labor market. To meet the national demand for STEM talents, China has carried out workforce development reforms, including the Young Talent Program to cultivate top-notch talents in basic disciplines and the emerging engineering education (3E) for outstanding engineering aptitude.
MOE along with other ministries jointly launched the Young Talent Program in 2009 to offer special programs for gifted young students in STEM fields. In 2018, six ministries including MOE issued Guidelines on the Implementation of Young Talent Program in Basic Disciplines 2.0, also called the Young Talent Program 2.0.Footnote 13 This program has been expanded to broader disciplines including social sciences and extended support to more universities. Among the expanded disciplines, the crucial areas such as intelligent technology, new materials, advanced manufacturing, national security, as well as humanities and social sciences were emphasized (MOE et al., 2018a). More training centers have been established from 2019 to 2021. These centers served as important platforms and formed a world-class system for developing top-notch talents. After a decade of practices, in 2020, MOE issued Guidelines on the Pilot Reform of Enrollment of Basic Disciplines in Universities and Colleges, also known as the Strengthened Basic Discipline Plan.Footnote 14 The plan is deeply connected with the Young Talent Program, which works together to reform the admission system of STEM fields, including math, physics, chemistry and biology (MOE, 2020b).
In response to the accelerated development of the new industries, China has actively promoted 3E since 2017 which refers to emerging or emerged subjects in engineering. It aims to cultivate outstanding innovative engineering talents who can adapt to the changes for future industries, and represents the latest development direction of the industries. In engineering fields, it is found that most of the college graduates in China, after years of study, fail to apply what they have learned in real life, while many enterprises in the new industries argue that the biggest problem they face is a talent crunch (Wu et al., 2017). In 2018, the Guidelines on Accelerating the Development of Emerging Engineering and Implementing the Cultivation Program of Outstanding Engineers 2.0 was issued to address the problems of engineering courses. It states that “China aims to have more than 20% engineering programs be international qualified in five years, and forms world-class engineering systems with Chinese features. Specifically, China aims to build a number of high-level science and engineering universities, jointly owned industry and future technology colleges and institutes, emerging engineering disciplines for the industry with great demand. It is also going to offer the new curriculum representing the latest progresses of industry and technology; as well as professional teaching force with strong practical skills.” (MOE et al., 2018b) Through the measures above, China seeks to update its engineering education in the new round of scientific and technological revolution and industrial changes, and improve students’ abilities as part of the initiatives to make significant advances in implementing the national strategy and promoting regional development.
8 Summary
STEM education has attracted global attention over the last few decades and become an indispensable part of national educational reforms. This chapter reviews the development of STEM education in China and the world. Although there are different definitions attached to the concept of STEM education to serve various educational goals, this chapter focuses on workforce development in the STEM fields, at both secondary and tertiary educational levels. Excellence indicators of STEM education have been proposed to analyze across 10 countries to depict the features of excellent STEM education. Both the highlighting data and excellent indicators confirm China’s achievements on producing large scale of STEM graduates and academic achievements. However, the data also highlighted the need to reform STEM education at secondary education level to inspire students’ interests, improve their STEM learning efficiencies, and enhance STEM career interest. The best practices and inspiring stories of STEM education in China are focused on attracting young students to STEM fields, which is one of the global challenges in STEM fields. STEM education in China has shifted from introducing and learning experiences from other countries to developing with Chinese own features. Both the practices and policies are consistently organized and designed around the national focus on preparing a strong, innovative STEM workforce. Relevant enrollment and learning programs reforms encourage young students to actively participate in scientific innovations. In particular, the development of STEM education in China, along with education informatization, focuses on ICT-related fields and utilizes information technology to support reform. STEM education practices in China also place an emphasis on scientists’ engagement in teaching and learning.
The global comparative data are compiled to highlight the process and outcomes of STEM education in China. They indicate that China has achieved stronger STEM outcomes at both secondary and tertiary levels than other countries. However, the ability to solving problems with knowledge and skills in STEM disciplines still need to be improved in China. Chinese secondary students spend much more time in schools compared to their counterparts in other countries, while the proportion of Chinese STEM teachers with master’s degree is much lower than that of other countries. Students which receive STEM education in China should improve their learning efficiency at secondary education level and STEM teachers should improve their professional competencies. One way to ensure the improvement of STEM education in China at the secondary education level is to improve the teaching quality. On the one hand, in-service training should be strengthened to update and improve STEM teachers’ pedagogies, methods and skills. On the other hand, with the premise of education quality, the scale of STEM full-time master’s in education shall be increased significantly, as well as expansions of in-service STEM teachers pursuing master’s degrees. This is reflected in China’s latest educational policies.
Excellence indicators of STEM education show, among the 10 countries, China achieves the highest total score. But the size of Chinese research and development personnel is the smallest among the 10 countries, and China ranks 5th in the middle school students’ STEM career interest. This indicates that, although there is a large number of STEM graduates in China, few of them are likely to devote themselves to research and development. Meanwhile, ROK enjoys largest workforce in R&D among the 10 countries. This result is consistent with previous research, such as EngineeringUK, which shows both the enrollment and attainments affected the STEM graduates (Armitage et al., 2020). In China, it is particularly important to raise students’ STEM career awareness and depict the whole picture of STEM career to students, thus laying a solid foundation for future engagements in STEM-related professions.
To address the global challenges of inspiring young students and attracting talent into STEM fields (DeWitt et al., 2011), this chapter highlights best practices and inspiring stories from China for global reference. To attract young talents to STEM fields, especially basic discipline research, reforms have taken place in terms of enrollment and curriculum across higher education. Top universities are actively engaged in practicing innovative teaching initiatives as well as developing talent training centers to implement the young talent programs. Moreover, it is important to promote students’ interests in science and increase the relevance of science education to young students (Forsthuber et al., 2017). Scientists’ engagement in teaching is proved to be an effective way to do so. But as international researchers have pointed out, scientists are not trained teachers and might not offer quality teaching and learning experience for young students as scientists’ involvement is usually fragmented and subjective (Leshner, 2003; Llorente et al., 2019; Sheffield et al., 2021). In response, MOE in China works closely with research institutions and scientists, to make joint efforts to design curriculum and deliver teaching so as to ensure systematic learning and suitable content for young students. Furthermore, popular new media and the internet promote STEM education. Various science programs for public engagement are broadcasted online and attracted large number of audiences, including young students. These programs are efficient ways to attract young talents, and to expand access to young students to learn about various STEM career paths.
The latest research on STEM education in China focuses on learning lessons from the U.S. and implementing STEM practices in schools. Research in China shows a distinctive feature of combing STEM education with maker education with support of ICTs. Research interests of STEM education in China also extends to the tertiary level and informal education fields. Moreover, recent research put focus on STEM workforce development throughout the education system, from K-12 to higher education sector.
STEM education is closely related to national development strategies. Research shows that China has achieved high academic attainment in STEM fields, but low attainment in innovation. In response to this challenge, Chinese government has issued policies related to STEM education to develop students’ innovation skills particularly in the areas critical to national development both at the secondary and higher education levels. Learning lessons from the STEM policies in the U.S., Chinese scientific institutions have actively collaborated with MOE to improve the quality of STEM education. However, compared with the U.S. and Europe, China’s STEM practices still need to expand its programs to all levels of education, to enhance the programs’ coherence across different educational levels, as well as to support a STEM ecosystem through the collaboration with scientific institutions, industries and the society.
Notes
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The 2021 Physics Olympiad was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in the absence of statistics on its official website.
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Yan, X., Yu, T., Chen, Y. (2024). Global Comparison of STEM Education. In: Niancai, L., Zhuolin, F., Qi, W. (eds) Education in China and the World. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5861-0_9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5861-0_9
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