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The European Social Model Facing the Economic and the COVID Pandemic Crises

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The Indian Yearbook of Comparative Law 2020

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Abstract

The article explores the constitutional identity of the European Polity, regarding its social dimension, in comparison with the American one and the fundamental principles of its member states. It finds that there is an initial asymmetry, yet to be overcome, between the market-oriented character of the European project and the more socially oriented national constitutional orders. Subsequently, it explores the reaction of the European Union to the economic crisis of 2008 and the crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic. It concludes with the assertion that the crucial issue of the European Union remains the reconciliation of social rights with the logic of market integration.

The article draws heavily from the below mentioned previous works of mine. Its added value is the repositioning of the analysis on the new institutional and economic situation framework of the COVID-19 pandemic, which shows some qualitative mutations vis-à-vis the reaction to the economic crisis of 2008. George S. Katrougalos, The (Dim) Perspectives of the European Social Citizenship, Jean Monnet Working Paper no. 05/2007, https://jeanmonnetprogram.org/paper/the-dim-perspectives-of-the-european-social-citizenship/; Katrougalos, G. (2012). The Greek Debt, under the light of Constitutional and International Law. CADTM Publications. https://www.cadtm.org/The-Greek-Debt-under-the-light-of.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    I use the term legal culture broadly, in the sense that includes every aspect of institutional and legal setup, including the particular ethos of a polity. For the concept of the “common european legal culture,” see P. Häberle (1991), “Gemeineuropäisches Verfassungsrecht,” EuGRZ (1991), p. 261, 274.

  2. 2.

    See G. Katrougalos (2008) “European ‘Social States’ and the USA: An Ocean Apart?” European Constitutional Law Review, 4: 225–250, from which I draw for the analycf. S. Fabrini (2004), “Transatlantic constitutionalism: comparing the United States and the European Union,” 43 European Journal of Political Research p. 547, M. Rosenfeld (ed.) (1994), Constitutionalism, Identity, Difference and Legitimacy, Durham, Duke University Press.

  3. 3.

    See J. Pontusson (2005), Inequality and Prosperity: Social Europe Vs. Liberal America, Cornell University Press.

  4. 4.

    R., Aron, (1972) Etudes Politiques, Paris: Gallimard, p. 242.

  5. 5.

    Cf. the cases Harris v. MacRae, 448 US 297 (1980), Deshaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social Services, 489 US 189 (1989).

  6. 6.

    See, for instance, R. Bork, (1979), The impossibility of finding welfare rights in the Constitution, Washington University Law Quarterlym, p. 695, cf. G. Scoffoni, (2006) Observations comparatives sur la place des droits sociaux constitutionnels deans les systèmes de common law et de droit mixte in L. Gay, et al. Les droits sociaux fondamentaux, Paris, Bruylant,167–184.

  7. 7.

    See, for instance, G. Casper, (1989) “Changing Concepts of Constitutionalism,” S Ct Rev 311, 318–399, M.A. Glendon, (1992) “Rights in the Twentieth Century Constitutions,” U Chi L Rev 59, 519.

  8. 8.

    C. Fabre, (2005) “Social Rights in European Constitutions,” in G. De Búrca and B. De Witte, Social Rights in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 15–28, p. 16.

  9. 9.

    See K. Dyson, (1980), The state tradition in Western Europe, Oxford: Martin Robertson, cf. Kahn-Freund, O., (1978) “Common Law and Civil Law—Imaginary and Real Obstacles to Assimilation,” in Mauro Cappelleti (ed), New Perspectives for a Common Law of Europe-, London: Sijmoff.

  10. 10.

    Cf. B. Markezinis, (2001), “Unity or Division: The search for similarities in contemporary European Law,” Current Legal Problems, 51, 591–617, p. 612.

  11. 11.

    N.Walker,, (2006) “European Constitutionalism in the State Constitutional Tradition.” Current Legal Problems, 57, 51–89, p. 63, Grimm, D. (2005) “Integration by Constitution,” ICON 3, 193–208, cf. Smend, R., (1956) “Integrationslehre”, in Handwörterbuch der Sozialwissenschaften, 5, 299–310.

  12. 12.

    A. Alesina,, Angeletos, M., (2002) “Fairness and Redistribution: US versus Europe,” Harvard Institute of Economic Research Working Papers 1983, Harvard Institute of Economic Research.

  13. 13.

    “Il suffit de dire que les citoyens en commun ont droit à tout ce que l’Etat peut faire en leur faveur.” Abba Sieyès, “Des droits de l’homme et du citoyen,” lu les 20 et 21 juillet 1789 au comité de la Constitution, Hermann, 1939, p. 70.

  14. 14.

    A.M. Slaughter, (2007), The idea that is America, Cambridge, MA: Basic Books, p. 80, 105.

  15. 15.

    According to a World Values Survey, 71 percent of Americans versus 40 percent of Europeans believe that the poor could become rich if they just tried hard enough. See A. Alesina, Angeletos, M., (2002) "Fairness and Redistribution: US versus Europe," op. cit.

  16. 16.

    W. Beveridge, Unemployment: A Problem of Industry, London, Longmans, 1909.

  17. 17.

    As in article 20 para 1 of the German Fundamental Law, art. 1 of the Constitution of France, art. 1 para 1 of the Constitution of Spain, art. 2 of the Constitution of Portugal, the Preamble of the Constitution of Bulgaria and Art. 1 para 1 of the Constitutions of Croatia and FYR of Macedonia, 2 of Slovenia, 6 para 1 of Russia.

  18. 18.

    See, e.g., the Constitutions of Belgium (art. 23), Italy (art. 2–4, 31, 32, 35–38, 41, 45, 46), Luxembourg (11, 23, 94), Netherlands (19, 20, 22) Greece (21, 22), Spain (39–52, 129, 148, 149), Portugal (56, 59, 63–72, 108, 109, 167, 216).

  19. 19.

    Cf. F.A Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy (London, Routledge 1980) p. 141.

  20. 20.

    T.H. Marshall, Social Policy (London, Routledge 1975) at p. 15. Marshall was referring to social policy in general, but his description defines very precisely also the basic functions of the social state principle.

  21. 21.

    Poll carried out between 6 September and 10 October 2006, by TNS Opinion & Social, a consortium createdcbetween Taylor Nelson Sofres and EOS Gallup Europe, accessible at http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb66/.

  22. 22.

    Sometimes, more predominantly than the EU average, for instance, in Slovakia, where 66% of citizens agree with this proposition, as against 64% in the EU25.

  23. 23.

    For a more analytical discourse on that see Katrougalos, G. (2007), The dim perspectives of the European social citizenship, NYU Jean Monnet Paper 7, New York, New York University.

  24. 24.

    See, among others, Scharpf, F. (2002), “The European Social Model” Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 40, pp. 645–670, 2002 Moravcsik, A. (1998) The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).

  25. 25.

    Cf. Everson, M. (1995) “The legacy of the market citizen,” in: J. Shaw and G. More (Eds), New Legal Dynamics of European Union Oxford: Oxford University Press, ibidem.

  26. 26.

    The Court of Justice considers that such a provision “is essentially in the nature of a programme” although “an important aid, in particular for the interpretation of other provisions of the Treaty and of secondary legislation in the social field.” See Case 149/77 Defrenne v. Sabena III [1978] ECR. 1365, Case 170/84 Bilka / Weber von Hartz [1986], ECR 1607, Case 126/86 Giménez Zaera v Instituto Nacional de la Seguridad Social and Tesorerνa General de la Seguridad Social [1987] ECR 3697.

  27. 27.

    See Flora, P. (1993), The national welfare states and the European Integration, in: L. Moreno (Ed.), Social Exchange and Welfare Development, Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones científicas, Instituto de Estudios Sociales Avanzados.

  28. 28.

    Through Community Regulation 1408/71, which has recently been substantially reformed with the adoption of Regulation 883/2004. Cf. Streeck, W., (1996) “Neo-Voluntarism: A new European Social Regime?” in F. Snyder (Ed.) Constitutional Dimensions of European Economic Integration, London: Kluwer Law International, 229–268, p. 258, Mosley, H. (1990), "The Social Dimension of European Integration,” International Labour Review, 129 (2): 147–64.

  29. 29.

    Maduro, M.P., (1998), We The Court, The European Court of Justice and the European Economic Constitution, Oxford: Hart Publishing,, pp. 61 ff., the same, (1999) “We Still Have Not Found What We Have Been Looking For. The Balance Between Economic Freedom and Social Rights in the European Union,” Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Nova de Lisboa Working Paper 4/99,, accessible at www.fd.unl.pt/web/Anexos/Downloads/185.pdf, p. 6, cf. Davies, P., (1995) “Market Integration and Social Policy in the Court of Justice,” 24 Industrial Law Journal 1995, 49, p. 51.

  30. 30.

    On the concept of the European economic constitution see, among others, Sauter, W. (1998), “The Economic Constitution of the European Union,” 4 Columbia Journal of European Law 1998, p. 27 ff., Jorges,S., (1997), The market without the state? The “Economic Constitution” of the European Community and the rebirth of regulator policies, European Integration online Papers (EioP), v. 1, 19, Behrens, P. (1994), “Die Wirtschaftsverfassung der Europäischen Gemeinschaft,” in G. BRAGGERMEIER (Hrsg.), Verfassungen für ein ziviles Europa, Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 7 ff, Boscowits K., (2001) The European Judge and the Economic Constitution: The Contribution of ECJ to the formulation of a constitutional economic model of the European Community, ToS, 2, (in Greek).

  31. 31.

    Weiler, J.H.H. (1999), Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Boundaries, in Weiler, J.H.H.(ed.), The Constitution of Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Chap. 3, p. 121.

  32. 32.

    See, for example, Case 4/73, Nold, [1974] ECR 491 and Case 44/79, Hauer, [1979] ECR 3727.

  33. 33.

    The first references by the ECJ to the European Social Charter were in the Case 149/77 Defrenne III [1978] ECR 1365 and in Case 24/86, Vincent Blaizot and others against the City of Liege [1988], ECR 379, cf. also Case C-246/96 Magorrian and Cunningham v. Eastern Health and Social Service Board and the Department of Health and Social Services [1997] ECR I-7153, Case C-191/94 AGF Belgium [1996] ECR I-1859.

  34. 34.

    Cf. Witte de, B., (2005)”The trajectory of fundamental social rights in the European Union” in G. De Búrca and B. De Witte, Social Rights in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 153–168 Witte de, B., “The trajectory of fundamental social rights in the European Union” in G. De Búrca and B. De Witte, Social Rights in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 153–168, Ponthoreau, M.-C. (2003), “Le principe de l’indivisibilité des droits: l’apport de la Charte des droits fondamentaux,” Revue Française de Droit Administratif, p. 931. The initial proposal of the Commission was also referring to rights of citizens.

  35. 35.

    With most notable exception the gender equality, which is, however, primarily a civil, not a social right.

  36. 36.

    See Braibant, G. (2001), La Charte des droits fondamentaux de l’Union européenne, Paris: Seuil, p. 40, cf. Molinier, J. (dir.) (2005), Les principes fondateurs de l’Union européenne, Paris: PUF, pp. 271–272.

  37. 37.

    De Búrca, G., (2005) “Introduction”, in G. De Búrca and B. De Witte, Social Rights in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1–14, p. 14, cf. Sciarra, S. (1996) “Building on European Social Values: an analysis of the multiple sources of European social law,” in F. Snyder (Ed.) Constitutional Dimensions of European Economic Integration, London: Kluwer Law International, 1175-206.

  38. 38.

    Streeck W. (1995), “From market making to state building? Reflections on the political economy of European social policy” in S. Leibfried and P. Pierson (Eds) European Social Policy: Between fragmentation and integration, Washington: The Brookings Institution, 389–431, p. 413Lehning, P, (1997) “European citizenship: A mirage?” in P. Lehning, and A Weale, Citizenship, democracy and justice in the new Europe, London, New York: Routledge, 175–199, p. 180.

  39. 39.

    Maduro, M.P. (1999), “We Still Have Not Found What We Have Been Looking For. The Balance Between Economic Freedom and Social Rights in the European Union,”. note 30, p. 1.

  40. 40.

    Cf. Fitzpatrick, B. (2000) “Converse pyramids and the EU social Constitution,” in J. Shaw (Ed.), Social Law and Policy in an Evolving European Union, Oxford, Portland: Hart Publishing, 304–324, who describes how the respective underpinning values are reversed in the economic and social constitutions of the member states and the Union.

  41. 41.

    O’ Leary, S., (2005) “Solidarity and Citizenship Rights in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union,” in G. De Búrca, EU Law and the Welfare, In Search of Solidarity, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 40–88, p. 54.

  42. 42.

    Streeck, W., (1996) “Neo-Voluntarism: A new European Social Regime?” in F. Snyder (Ed.) Constitutional Dimensions of European Economic Integration, London: Kluwer Law International, 229–268, p. 230.

  43. 43.

    Case 238/82 Duphar v Netherlands [1984] ECR 523 para 16, Cases C-159 and C-160/91 Poucet and Pistre [1993] ECR I-637, para 6, Case C-158/96 Kohl v. Union des Caisses de Maladie [1998] ECR I-1931, para 17, see Hervey, T. (2000) “Social Solidarity: A buttress against internal market law?” in J. Shaw (Ed.), Social Law and Policy in an Evolving European Union, Oxford, Portland: Hart Publishing, 31–47, p. 33 ff.

  44. 44.

    In areas so diverse as the working hours of workers (see Case 145/88, Torfaen Borough Council, [1989] ECR 3851, or prices regulations (Case 65/75, Tasca, [1976] ECR 291; Case 13/77, ATAB, [1977] ECR 2115. See Maduro, M.P., (1999) “We Still Have Not Found What We Have Been Looking For. The Balance Between Economic Freedom and Social Rights in the European Union,” op. cit., note 30.

  45. 45.

    Streeck, W., (1996) “Neo-Voluntarism: A new European Social Regime?” in F. Snyder (Ed.) Constitutional Dimensions of European Economic Integration, London: Kluwer Law International, 229–268, p. 262.

  46. 46.

    Maduro, M.P. (2003) The Double Constitutional Life of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, in T. Hervey and J. Kenner, Economic and Social Rights under the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights-A legal perspective, Oxford-Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 269–298, p. 286.

  47. 47.

    See, among others, Panic, M. (2005) “The Euro and the Welfare State” in E. Spaventa, M. Dougan, Social Welfare and EU Law, Oxford and Portland: Hart Publishing, 25–44, p. 161 ff.

  48. 48.

    Cf. Shaw, J., (1994) “Twin-Track Social Europe –The inside track” in O’ Keefe and Twomey (Eds) Legal Issues of the Maastricht Treaty, 295–311, p. 298: “Since the Paris Summit in 1972, the Member States have been concerned to promote a public rhetoric in which social affairs are accorded equal status with ‘pure’ economic integration. The rhetoric (…) indicates that it is ‘neo-liberal business as usual’, with these provisions (of the TEU) aping those which have long stood largely unheeded in the Treaty of Rome.”.

  49. 49.

    For a description of the Pillar see (2027) European Platform for Rehabilitation, The European Pillar of Social Rights & Service delivery for persons with disabilities, at http://epr.eu/wp-content/uploads/EPSR-Analytical-Paper-1.pdf.

  50. 50.

    See K. Lörcher (2016), New Tensions over Social Europe? The European Pillar of Social Rights and the Debate within the European Parliament, European Trade Union Institute (ETUI) Research Paper - Report 139, P. Vesan, F. Corti (2019), The European Pillar of Social Rights: Critical Legal Analysis and Proposals, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 57, Issue 5.

  51. 51.

    Buckley, R. (2010) “The Bankruptcy of Nations: Let the Law Reflect Reality.” Banking and Financial Services Policy Report, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 1–17.

  52. 52.

    See Katrougalos, G. (2013), Memoranda: Greek exceptionalism or the Mirror of Europe’s Future in A. Trianafyllidou et al., The Greek Crisis and European Modernity, Parlgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 89–109.

  53. 53.

    M. Perelman, (2012). “Sado-Monetarism: The Role of the Federal Reserve System in Keeping Wages Low,” Monthly Review, 63, p. 11.

  54. 54.

    J. Fischer (2014), Scheitert Europa?, Kiepenheuer&Witsch, Cologne, p. 39.

  55. 55.

    See A. Camous, G. Claeys (2020), The evolution of European economic institutions during the COVID‐19 crisis, European Policy Analysis, Volume 6, Issue 2, December 2020, pp. 328–341.

  56. 56.

    See Scharpf, F. (2002) “The European Social Model: Coping with the Challenges of Diversity,” Journal of Common Market Studies, vol.40, n°4, 645–669, p. 646.

  57. 57.

    Wendler F. (2004) Τhe paradoxical effects of institutional change for the legitimacy of European governance: the case of EU Social Policy, European Integration οn line Papers (ΕΙοP), vol. 8, 7, Scharpf, F. (2002) The European Social Model: Coping with the Challenges of Diversity, in: Journal of Common Market Studies, 40, 645–70.

  58. 58.

    Maduro, M.P. (2000), “Europe’s Social Self: ‘The sickness unto death’” in J. Shaw (Ed.), Social Law and Policy in an Evolving European Union, Oxford, Portland: Hart Publishing, 325–349, p. 340.

  59. 59.

    Lorber, P. (2004), “Labour Law” in S. Peers and A. Ward, The European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights, Oxford and Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 210F-230, p. 225, Gijzen, M. (2001) “The Charter: A milestone for social protection in Europe” 8 MJ 1, 33–48, p. 45.

  60. 60.

    Weiler, J. H.H., (1995), “Fundamental rights and fundamental boundaries: On standards and values in the protection of human rights,” in N. Neuwahl and A. Rosas (Eds), The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijzhoff Publishers, 51–76, p. 53, 54.

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  1. Democritus University, Komotini, Greece

    George Katrougalos

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  1. Jindal Global Law School, O. P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India

    Mathew John

  2. Jindal Global Law School, O. P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India

    Vishwas H. Devaiah

  3. School of Law, BML Munjal University, Gurugram, Haryana, India

    Pritam Baruah

  4. Jindal Global Law School, O. P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India

    Moiz Tundawala

  5. Centre for Comparative Law, National Law University, Delhi, New Delhi, India

    Niraj Kumar

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Katrougalos, G. (2023). The European Social Model Facing the Economic and the COVID Pandemic Crises. In: John, M., Devaiah, V.H., Baruah, P., Tundawala, M., Kumar, N. (eds) The Indian Yearbook of Comparative Law 2020. The Indian Yearbook of Comparative Law. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5467-4_9

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