Taking a Point of View on a Debatable Question Concerning Karma and Rebirth

Abstract

My thesis is that there is a way to mediate between two competing views about karma and rebirth by arguing for a third position. The first, or traditionalist view, is that supernatural agencies are required in the Buddhist system of concepts and that secularism and naturalized karma view will not supply concepts necessary for traditional Buddhism. The second, or modernist view, holds the opposite view. Supernatural agencies are not required in the Buddhist system of concepts, and even without traditional concepts of karma, rebirth, and enlightenment after death, there is still a coherent karma and rebirth theory as applied to experience in this very lifetime. A third position, or mediating view of coexistence, advocates a doctrinal interpretation of Buddhist teachings, a socially engaged practice inspired by mettā, and the theory and practice of satipaṭṭhāna (mindfulness of breathing). I will inquire into each of the above views on karma and rebirth by asking: what it means (the linguistic concern), how does one know (the epistemological concern), and how does it work (the pragmatic concern)? These are three fundamental philosophical questions for meaning, knowledge, and application. Although I will exemplify aspects of each position concerning some Buddhist philosophers, I am mainly interested in the three kinds of positions and the benefits of each one. So, I am not interested in identifying the Buddhist scholar with what many call “the best view” or “the most popular view.” I am interested in identifying the position most likely to bring unity to humankind and benefit the global ecosystem of animals, earth, and people going forward. In sum, to raise the linguistic, epistemological, and pragmatic concerns about the interpretation of karma and rebirth is to raise some of the most significant and consequential questions we can ask about Buddhism in modernity.

A Substantially Different Version of This First Part Was Read at the Association for Core Texts and Courses, Special Meeting, Irvine, California As “Which Asian Texts Should American College Students Read?” at Concordia University and the Atrium Hotel, July 13–15, 2018. An Updated Version Was Previously Written for Publication in the Journal of Philosophy and Religion of Thailand, Vol. 16, No. 1 (2564), Feb. 15, 2022. This Version Is Substantially the Same As That in the Journal Article, and It Was Presented As a Lecture for the Second Time at a Hybrid Conference on 24 March 2023 in the College of Religious Studies, Mahidol University.

Appendix

Let us see what the MCU expert translation team of international scholars says about karma and rebirth. Using the recently published Common Buddhist Text: Guidance and Insight from the Buddha (Ayutthaya: Mahaculalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, 2017 and 2018), it is easily possible to choose a topic, for example, karma and rebirth, and sketch the outlines of the Buddha’s with exact textual references from the Pali, and I now summarize.¹³

In Theravada Buddhism, there is samsara, a cycle of rebirths, but it is without a known beginning. It follows that there is, on this view, no evidence of a first beginning initiated by a monotheistic substance called “God” (Tinakattha Sutta of Samyutta Nikaya II.178). The reality of rebirth and karma is understood in Theravada Buddhism as independent of sacrifices and gifts, unlike in ancient Hindu rituals. It is an error to deny a future life, how one is reborn depends on one’s conduct, and awakened ones directly know and see this (Apannaka Sutta of Majjhima Nikaya I.402).

Buddhists think that believing in rebirth and karma is a safe bet, as stated in the third part of the Kālāma Sutta. This last one is a very important and well-known sutta, but it is not one that people typically study deeply and completely: part one is about being self-reliant, part two is about paying attention to the words of the wise ones, viz., the intellectuals (viññū), and the third part is the probabilistic argument to the effect that believing in rebirth and karma is a safe bet (Kesaputta or Kālāma Sutta of Anguttara Nikaya I.192).¹⁴ Another sutta says that there are five main rebirth realms: purgatory, animal, hungry ghosts, human, or the gods or devas (Nibbedhika Sutta of Anguttara Nikaya III.415). As Buddhism developed, there came to be a sixth realm, the Titans.

Perhaps the devas are of two types, one benevolent and shining, and another wrathful type who is malevolent and likes to fight. The titans or asuras were divided over time from the benevolent deities to be an independent realm making a sixth rebirth realm. Anyway, rebirth as a human is a precious and rare opportunity, as Nakhasika Sutta explains. If one is fortunate enough to have a human rebirth, then it is prudent to use the opportunity to attain enlightenment (Nakhasika Sutta of Samyutta Nikaya II.263.). Being born a human who can hear the dhamma is rare (Dhammapada 182). So, since life is short, it is good to practice while you can (Dhammapada 47). Our world in the context of the universe is among clusters of worlds throughout the universe (Abhibhu Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya I.227–228). Buddha’s view has cycles of cosmic eons (Pabbata Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya II.181–182).

Next, to consider karma, karma (Pali: kamma) is volition (Nibbedhika Sutta of Anguttara Nikaya III.415), and one’s unskillful actions have a karmic impact sooner or later (Dhammapada 69–71). One’s actions and thoughts condition one’s rebirth, not the rituals of others (Asibandhakaputta Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya IV.312–314). Karma shows how past actions lead to differences among people (Culakammavibhanga Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya III.203–206).

However, experiences, and skillful and unskillful actions, cannot all be blamed on past karma or a God, but neither are they causeless (Titthayayatana Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya I.173–176). Feelings and illnesses are not all due to past karma (Sivaka Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya IV.230–231). A good character can dilute the karmic results of a bad action (Lonakapallaka Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, I. 242–250). Self-determination of one’s rebirth occurs through virtue, wisdom, and resolve (Sankharuppati Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya III.99–104). Karma can mature slowly, and one’s view and attitude at the end of one’s life are important (Mahakammavibhanga Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya III.214–215).

There are implications of karma and rebirth for attitudes to others. For example, we have experienced in the past both the good times and bad times of others, so sympathy for others and non-attachment to good experiences are wise (Duggatam and Sukhitam Suttas of the Samyutta Nikaya II.186–187). This life and all rebirths result in aging, sickness, and death; nothing that is conditioned is permanent (Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya II.157; Alagaddupamasutta of the Majjhima Nikaya II.157). There are frailties of human life (Ratthapala Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya II.70–73), and one must accept the inevitability of death (Salla Sutta of the Sutta Nipata 574–573). The search for sensual pleasures leads to suffering (Culadukkhakkhandha Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya I.91–92).