Abstract
Women bore the disproportionate impact of the pandemic-induced labor market disruptions throughout all three major waves in India. High-frequency monthly data reveals that around 37.1% of women lost their jobs in March–April 2020, compared to only 27.7% of men, following the national lockdown. Accounting for 73% of all job losses, women suffered a higher proportion and a higher number of absolute job losses in April 2021. Finally, in April 2022, even as male employment crossed pre-pandemic levels, women’s employment continued to lag, being 2% lower than in April 2019. Chronicling women’s lived experiences through over 100 primary consultations undertaken between 2020 and 2022, this paper describes the socio-economic factors behind the observed gender gaps in income and job losses. The gendered digital divide, domestic work responsibilities, mobility restrictions, inadequate skill training, and lack of institutional support amidst hybrid work emerge as key issues restricting women’s economic participation. To mitigate these challenges, gender-sensitive interventions need to be mainstreamed across the public, private, and social sectors. By highlighting the depth of the difficulties faced by women throughout the pandemic, this chapter posits the need to keep women at the heart of India’s post-COVID-19 recovery strategy.
Keywords
- Women
- India
- Labor force
- Employment
- Jobs
- COVID-19 impact
- Post-pandemic recovery
- Economy
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- 1.
The terms ‘females’ and ‘women’ have been used interchangeably in this chapter. This is because of the difference in presentation of estimates in these two surveys. Periodic Labor Force Survey uses the term ‘females’ whereas Center for Monitoring Indian Economy uses ‘women’.
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Appendices
Appendix A: List of Definitions and Abbreviations
A.1 Definitions
-
1.
Activity Status
The paper uses the usual status (ps + ss) data to measure the key employment and unemployment indicators, for both rural and urban areas. The usual activity status of a person is determined on the basis of the activities pursued by the person during the reference period of last 365 days preceding the date of survey.
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2.
Casual Labor
Any person who was casually engaged in others’ farm/non-farm enterprises—both household and non-household—and, in return, received wages as per the terms of the daily/periodic work contract, is considered as casual labor.
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3.
Employers
Any self-employed person who worked on their own-account or with one or a few partners and who ran their enterprise by hiring labor.
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4.
Gender Wage Ratio
Gender wage ratio is defined as the difference between median earnings of men and women.
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5.
Helpers in Household Enterprises
Any self-employed person who were engaged full time/part time in their household enterprises and did not receive any regular salary/wages in return for the work performed. They did not run the household enterprise on their own but assisted the concerned person living in the same household in running the household enterprise.
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6.
Labor Force
Any person who is either working (or employed) or seeking or available for work (or unemployed) constitutes the labor force.
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7.
Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR)
LFPR is the number of persons/person-days in the labor force (which includes both the employed and unemployed) per 1000 persons/person-days.
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8.
Own-Account Workers
Any self-employed person who operated their enterprises on their own-account or with one or a few partners and who ran their enterprise without hiring any labor.
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9.
Salaried Employees
Any person who worked in others’ farm/non-farm enterprises (both household and non- household) and, in return, received salary or wages on a regular basis (i.e., not on the basis of daily or periodic renewal of work contract).
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10.
Self-employed
Any person who operated their own farm/non-farm enterprises or were engaged independently in a profession/trade on their own or with one or a few partners.
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11.
Workforce Participation Rate
WPR is the number of persons/person-days employed per 1000 persons/person-days.
A.2 Abbreviations
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1.
ASHA: Accredited Social Health Activist
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2.
ANM: Auxiliary Nurse-Midwives
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3.
AWW: Anganwadi Worker
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4.
CBO: Community-Based Organization
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5.
CCC: Community Childcare Center
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6.
CMIE: Center for Monitoring Indian Economy
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7.
EMI: Equated Monthly Installment
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8.
FLPFR: Female Labor Force Participation Rate
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9.
FMCG: Fast-Moving Consumer Goods
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10.
GB: Gigabyte
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11.
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
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12.
GST: Goods and Services Tax
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13.
HR: Human Resources
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14.
INR: Indian Rupee
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15.
MSRLM: Maharashtra State Rural Livelihood Mission
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16.
NFHS: National Family and Health Survey
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17.
NGO: Non-governmental Organization
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18.
NPO: Non-profit Organization
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19.
NSQF: National Skill Qualifying Framework
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20.
NSSO: National Sample Survey Office
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21.
PLFS: Public Labor Force Survey
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22.
PPE: Personal-protection Equipment
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23.
SHG: Self-Help Group
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24.
WPR: Workforce Participation Rate
Appendix B: List of Stakeholder Consultations
In order to deeply analyze the intricacies of women’s lived experiences in the backdrop of the disruptions caused by the pandemic to their professional and work lives, the Nikore Associates team undertook 99 consultations with 98 different stakeholders. Few organizations and stakeholders were consulted multiple times over the period of the research.
Organization name | No of consultations | State |
|---|---|---|
Aara Health | 1 | Maharashtra |
Aasara NGO | 1 | Maharashtra |
Adarsh Shiksha Samiti | 1 | Rajasthan |
ALEAP—Association of Lady Entrepreneurs of India | 1 | Telangana, Andhra Pradesh |
Ambiya | 1 | Maharashtra |
Anarock | 1 | Haryana |
Apnalaya | 1 | Maharashtra |
APU | 1 | Karnataka |
Aravani Art Project | 1 | Karnataka |
ASHA | 1 | Maharashtra |
Avtar | 1 | Tamil Nadu |
Azad Foundation | 1 | Delhi |
Azim Premji University | 1 | Karnataka |
BAIF India | 1 | Gujarat |
Baif Jamnagar | 1 | Gujarat |
BlackBox | 1 | Singapore |
Central Square Foundation | 1 | Delhi |
CEQUIN India | 1 | Delhi |
CITU, AIFAWH | 1 | Delhi |
Colorcol | 1 | Delhi |
Conscious Culture | 1 | Delhi |
Brandon Primus (Diversity, Equality, and Inclusion Scholar) | 1 | New York, United States |
Department of Labor | 1 | Karnataka |
Dhara Shakti | 1 | Rajasthan |
Dilli Haat | 1 | Delhi |
Eklavya Residential School, Department of Tribal and Welfare, Government of Madhya Pradesh | 1 | Madhya Pradesh |
GAME | 1 | Delhi |
GiveHer5 | 1 | Maharashtra |
GIZ Project Her&Now | 1 | Delhi |
Good Business Lab | 1 | Karnataka |
Gram Vaani | 1 | Delhi, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh |
Grip | 1 | Delhi |
Guru Nanak Phulkari | 1 | Delhi |
HDRC | 1 | Gujarat |
Hindustan Unilever | 1 | Maharashtra |
IAFFE | 1 | Brazil |
ICCHA/Ikvanshu | 1 | Maharashtra |
IHEID Graduate (Isha Bhasin) | 1 | Geneva, Switzerland |
Aila Bandagi (Independent Consultant) | 1 | Karnataka |
Nupur Dogra (Independent Journalist) | 1 | Uttar Pradesh |
Indian Institute of Management | 1 | Gujarat |
International Center for Research on Women | 1 | Delhi |
ISST | 1 | Maharashtra |
Jajabor Brand Consultancy | 1 | Delhi |
Madhabi Majhi (Jute Entrepreneur, former SHG member) | 1 | West Bengal |
Piyali Bose (Jute Entrepreneur, former SHG member) | 1 | West Bengal |
Poornima Chakra (Jute Entrepreneur, former SHG member) | 1 | West Bengal |
Sonela Chatterjee (Jute Entrepreneurs) | 1 | West Bengal |
Jwala Mahila Samiti | 1 | Madhya Pradesh |
Khwaab | 1 | Delhi |
Kranti | 1 | Maharashtra |
Kudumbashree | 1 | Kerala |
MAKAAM | 1 | Maharashtra |
Mann Deshi Foundation | 1 | Maharashtra |
MasterG | 1 | Delhi |
Mitti Ke Rang | 1 | Maharashtra |
MSME Cluster | 1 | West Bengal |
Myna Mahila Foundation | 1 | Maharashtra |
National Network of Sex Workers | 1 | Karnataka |
NF Infratech | 1 | Delhi |
NRLM | 1 | Maharashtra |
Oxfam India | 1 | Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh |
Parati | 1 | Delhi |
Penn Thozilahar Sangam | 1 | Tamil Nadu |
PepsiCo | 1 | Haryana |
Prajnya | 1 | Tamil Nadu |
PwC | 1 | Maharashtra |
Renu & Rekha Art Zone | 1 | Delhi |
Rohaa | 1 | Mumbai |
Rural Women Upliftment Society | 1 | Manipur |
Saath Charitable Trust | 1 | Gujarat |
Samhita Community Development Services | 1 | Maharashtra |
Sangini Resource center | 1 | Madhya Pradesh |
Sattva Consulting | 1 | Karnataka |
SEWA Bharat | 2 | Delhi |
Shakti Shalini | 1 | Delhi |
Shaktishali Mahila Sangathan Samiti | 1 | Madhya Pradesh |
Shanti Sahyog | 1 | Delhi |
Ankita (SHG Consultant) | 1 | Rajasthan |
Society for Promoting Participative Eco-System Management | 1 | Maharashtra |
Soprasteria | 1 | Karnataka |
STOP | 1 | Delhi |
Surendranagar SHG | 1 | Gujarat |
The Goodwork Alliance | 1 | Geneva, Switzerland |
Titli Foundation | 1 | Uttar Pradesh |
TN Women's collective | 1 | Tamil Nadu |
Udayan Care | 1 | Delhi |
Unplugged Moments | 1 | Maharashtra |
Upcyclie | 1 | Tamil Nadu |
Vanita Jyothi Mahila Sangam | 1 | Telangana, Andhra Pradesh |
Vimochana NGO | 1 | Karnataka (Bangalore) |
Vishvodaya Trust | 1 | Tamil Nadu |
WEN | 1 | Delhi |
Women in Econ/Policy | 1 | Delhi |
Women’s Commission Matters | 1 | Telangana |
Women@Work | 1 | Karnataka |
WOMENNOVATOR | 1 | Delhi |
WOTR | 1 | Maharashtra |
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Nikore, M., Deshmukh, A.S., Sharma, M., Mahant, T. (2023). Chronicling the Observed Gendered Effects in India’s Labor Markets During COVID-19. In: Gupta, I., Das, M. (eds) Contextualizing the COVID Pandemic in India. India Studies in Business and Economics. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4906-9_9
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