Keywords

1 Introduction

In recent years, the unemployment rates among university graduates have been regarded as an increased concern by the higher education systems all over the world. To address this, worldwide higher education institutions have launched various measures to enhance graduate employability (Bennett, 2019; Clarke, 2017; Harvey, 2000; Rosenberg et al., 2012, Tomlinson, 2017; World Bank, 2012). One of the most supportive approaches to graduate employability is to boost graduate employability capitals (Clark, 2017; Fugate et al., 2004; Tomlinson, 2017). As a vital component of graduate capitals, the development of social capital has also been considered as an effective contributor to graduate employability. Tomlinson (2017, p. 342) argues that social capital is considered as “the sum of social relationships and networks that help mobilise graduates’ existing human capital and bring them closer to the labour market and its opportunity structures” and it can “shape and facilitate graduates’ access and awareness of labour market opportunities and then being able to exploit them”. This implies that the larger graduates’ network with influential members is, the more information about prospective occupations they would be able to access and the higher chances they receive to secure their preferred employment (Fugate et al., 2004). Social class and the reputation of university programs are discussed as another enabler for employment outcomes (Clarke, 2017). Social relationships can be deemed as one of the most influential determinants for graduates to successfully secure their good employment opportunities (Tran, 2018a). For the above-mentioned reasons, the development of social capital in higher education with regard to social relationships and networks is likely to boost graduate employability, and then the extent to which these ties of social actors obtained by students may enable their employment prospects.

Studies in different contexts have addressed English language proficiency as an important aspect of employability in terms of the relationships between English language competence, social capital, and career opportunities (Bui et al., 2017, 2018; Erling & Seargeant, 2013; Hamid, 2015, Hamzah et al., 2015, Jayasingha & Suraweera, 2020; Pishghadam et al., 2011; Roshid & Chowdhury, 2013). As implied by Roshid and Chowdhury (2013) in the Australian market, employees’ proficiency in English enables them to not only advance their professional enhancement in local and international companies but also improve their technical knowledge and skills. In another context of South Asia, Jayasingha and Suraweera’s (2020) study with the case of students at the Rajarata University of Sri Lanka found that there was a significant relationship between the two independent variables of students’ English proficiency and employability (Pearson correlation coefficient: p = 0.940). A study by Bui et al. (2017) in Vietnam revealed that the limitation of students’ performance in English language could hinder their access to employment knowledge. Even though English language has emerged as the top foreign language in Vietnam, learners’ low level of English proficiency has become a topic of both debate and concern (Bui & Nguyen, 2016; Bui, et al., 2017, 2018; Canh, 1999; Huy Thinh, 2006; Loc, 2005). One debate related to English learners’ proficiency is their low employment prospects since limited English language proficiency restricts them from seeking jobs advertised in English (Bui, et al., 2017). Though social capital has been identified as one of the vital contributors to job prospects in terms of social relationships and networks (Bui, et al., 2017; Hamzah et al., 2015), research has paid limited attention to how English language education contributes to the development of students’ social capital. Therefore, this chapter reports a two-phased study that investigated students’ experience of how formal, non-formal, and informal English language education contributes to establishing their social relationships, from which their employment opportunities can be obtained. Overall, the study provided insights into how informal and non-formal English learning activities allowed students to forge relationships with people, compared with the formal English language education at the universities. The findings further depicted how these social relationships enable students to identify employment opportunities and sometimes a point of reference for their work. Some implications for formal English language education in the context of higher education were discussed to help extend students’ social capital for their future employability.

This chapter is set out as follows. This introduction is followed by a literature review on social capital in education, social capital development and graduate employability, and social capital development in English language education. This is then followed by a description of the present study with the study context, research question and approach, and data collection and analysis. Next, the findings and discussion are presented. Finally, the conclusions are drawn together with practical and theoretical implications.

2 Literature Review

2.1 What is Social Capital?

The concept of social capital in education has been defined in different ways with the common focus on social relations for productive outcomes among individuals and group members. As defined by Bourdieu (1986, p. 248), social capital refers to “the sum of the actual or potential resources that are linked to the possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition—in other words, to membership in a group”. The author emphasizes the importance of social network in terms of the opportunities and advantages which are available to members from group membership, and thus social capital is a vital resource for individuals. Coleman (1990, p. 302) defines social capital as an “aspect of a social structure, and it facilitates certain actions of individuals who are within that structure”. To clarify this, Coleman identifies three forms of social capital: reciprocity, information channels and flow of information, and norms enforced by sanction. Social capital is developed through combined actions of group members, and it is thus a public good because of its focus on the relationships among group members (ibid.). Putnam (1993, p. 167) defines social capital as “features of social organisation, such as trust, norms, and networks that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions”. In this regard, social capital (Putnam, 2000, p. 18) refers to connections among individuals—social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. This implies the value of social networks and the effects of social contacts on the productivity of both individuals and groups. These authors clarify general forms and functions of how social capital can be constructed. Sharing this concern, the education system can constitute students’ social capital development through bridging ties and new social networks (Tonkaboni et al., 2013; Zaker Salehi, 2008). Therefore, educational institutions can be deemed as one of the most significant contributors to enhancing social capital for graduates to meet social demands (Tavassoli, 2005).

2.2 Social Capital Development and Graduate Employability

There has been growing recognition of social capital as a vital component of graduate employability capitals (Clarke, 2017; Fugate et al., 2004; Peeters et al., 2017; Roulin & Bangerter, 2013; Tomlinson, 2017). Social capital can be seen as a capital derived from work- and career-related networks and relationships, so it can provide information about and access to job opportunities (Peeters, et al., 2017; Roulin & Bangerter, 2013). As mentioned by Clarke (2017) and Fugate et al. (2004), extensive and strong social networks could connect graduates to employment opportunities and strengthen graduates’ job applications. Tomlinson (2017, p. 342) clarifies the relationship between social capital and graduate employability that “the sum of social relationships and networks that help mobilise graduates’ existing human capital and bring them closer to the labour market and its opportunity structures”. The author then emphasizes the vital role of social capital in shaping, facilitating “graduates’ access and awareness of labour market opportunities”. Particularly, based on the views of social capital by Bourdieu (1986) and Putnam (1993), Tomlinson (2017) mentions that social capital can be seen as the resource that individuals have access to as a result of their membership or connections to particular groups, so their participation in higher education contexts will enable them to develop the necessary “bridging ties” with other key social actors (p. 342). This implies that the graduate employability can also be enhanced through the communication with teachers, alumni, professional talent from the industry, family, and friends (Chen, 2017). Therefore, graduates’ employment opportunities can be obtained not only from classroom instruction or practice process, community activities, as well as communication with family and friends, but also from guidance on the information of employment and occupation planning, enabling graduates to acquire employability.

In order to promote social capital development for graduate employability, various forms have been proposed. One significant way affecting graduate employability acquisition is learning from social networking (Batistic & Tymon, 2017; Chen, 2017; Kempster & Cope, 2010; Tonkaboni, 2013). In particular, with the help of networking behavior, individuals build relationships to form personal networks as another vital component in bigger social networks such as classes and communities, providing access to career management resources for the employment enhancement (Batistic & Tymon, 2017). As indicated by Tonkaboni (2013), social networks in school environments can further have significant influences on students’ exposure to job opportunities, helping them access and share information with schools, local interconnected networks, and external networks. Another way to develop graduate employability is through extracurricular experiences (Chen, 2017; Roulin & Bangerter, 2013; Tomlinson, 2017). As clarified by Roulin and Bangerter (2013) and Tchibozo (2008), university graduates who experience more extracurricular activities can find jobs corresponding to their qualifications and access larger firms and more managerial positions after graduation more easily than their counterparts who do not participate in such activities. Another form of social capital construction is employment engagement. Tomlinson (2017) argues that direct contacts with employers via career fairs or online profile constructing can be considered to make graduates more visible to their potential employers and accessible to their preferred occupations. As a common form of employer engagement, the internships are seen as one of the most effective bridges between universities and employers, from which school leavers’ work experience and knowledge can be enriched (Bui et al., 2017; Tomlinson, 2017). Online communities are another important contributor to the development of students’ social capital (Alm, 2015; Raza et al., 2017; Wagner, 2014). Furthermore, online communities are argued to easily enhance members’ social capital development thanks to their fluidity, which provides flexible social structures with continuous changes for group members to maximize their interactions (Faraj et al., 2011). This can facilitate more social relationships between students and their potential employers of large organizations (Steinfield et al., 2013).

2.3 Social Capital Development in English Language Education

When it comes to the development of social capital in the field of English language education, there has been limited evidence clarifying how various forms of English language education can enhance students’ social networks and relationships to support their future employability. Only few aspects of social capital in terms of bridging ties to social actors have been implicitly or explicitly addressed. On the one hand, social capital is discussed to enhance language achievement of students who learn English as a foreign language (Hamzah, et al., 2015; Pishghadam, et al., 2011). As explained by Pishghadam et al. (2011), social capital is matched with students’ academic records in language proficiency courses namely listening, speaking, reading, writing, and grammar. Particularly, social solidarity is seen as a linker to predicting listening in a foreign language, or students who establish stronger connections with other people in the society are more successful in the listening skill (ibid.). This is similar to what Hamzah et al. (2015) found in terms of a significant effect of social capital outside family toward students’ academic achievements. On the other hand, learning English is considered as an important factor contributing to students’ network development in terms of bringing students closer to communities for their personal and professional growth (Vu & Do, 2021). Although the relationships between social capital and English language proficiency have been proved, these studies did not indicate how social connections are related to different forms of English language learning and vice versa. The connection between social connections and students’ employment possibilities and attributes to social capital was not clearly determined.

Studies also discuss the relationship between English language and students’ employment opportunities (Bui, et al., 2017, 2018; Jayasingha & Suraweera, 2020; Roshid & Chowdhury, 2013; Vu & Do, 2021). In a study with Bangladeshi participants living in Melbourne, Roshid and Chowdhury (2013) found that English language was important not only for getting a job but also for being promoted in a job. Additionally, in order to gain higher possibilities of secure and better jobs, the authors emphasize the important role of English language in social interactions and social network development as an active determinant in enhancing job prospects among migrant communities. To investigate factors affecting graduate employability, Jayasingha and Suraweera’s (2020) case study using the self-administered questionnaire with 120 students at the Rajarata University of Sri Lanka found a positive impact of English proficiency on graduate employability with very high Pearson correlation coefficient (p = 0.940). The study further revealed that graduates found challenges with their job seeking and performance due to their difficulties with English language. This study thus implied that university management should consider appropriate English teaching methods to address this concern. A study by Bui et al. (2017) examining the perceptions of 617 university students and 06 lecturers in North Vietnam of English language as an employability skill found that students felt uncertain with seeking jobs with English requirement. This study thus highlighted the important role of universities regarding employers’ network development for students’ job-related possibilities. In the same context, Vu and Do’s (2021) study which investigated 194 students’ experience in capital development from their English language learning in Vietnamese higher education highlighted a connection between language learning and social capital. This study indicated learning English as an optimal means for increasing students’ job opportunities, but the types of students’ networks to promote job opportunities were not clearly revealed. Although these studies did not particularly indicate the vital role of establishing social relationships for students’ career prospects, it is recommended that universities should foster a collaborative, sustainable, and supportive relationships with employers in fields related to students’ majors as an effective preparation step for students to be employed in their desired careers.

In summary, although the relationships between social capital and English language proficiency have been identified in the literature, no apparent evidence has been traced in terms of how different forms of English language learning can boost students’ social network and relationships and how these social relationships and networks are likely to enhance students’ future job possibilities. The study reported in this chapter will address this gap in the scholarly literature.

3 The Present Study

3.1 Context of the Study

The recognition of English language education in the general education curriculum has been discussed by earlier studies (Bui & Nguyen, 2016; Le & Do, 2012; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2011; Nguyen, 2012, 2017). It is officially emphasized in the Prime Minister’s Decision 1400/QD-TTg dated on September 30, 2008, launching a twelve-year project, called “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in National Education System, Period 2008–2020”, or referred to as “Project 2020” to respond to Vietnam’s aspiration for integration into the global economy. According to this Decision, a foreign language as one of the compulsory subjects in the formal educational system would begin to be introduced at primary schools and be continued up to high schools, colleges, and universities. This Decision indicates that by the year 2020, most Vietnamese graduates from vocational schools, colleges, and universities are expected to achieve the capacity to use a foreign language independently. This goal considers foreign language proficiency as an advantage for the Vietnamese people contributing to the objective of industrialization and modernization for the country. The objective of this project is also to prepare English language skills for Vietnamese young people for national employability as well as regional job opportunities in the context of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ (ASEAN) integration (Prime Minister, 2008). Among foreign languages such as Russian, Chinese, and French, English has been mostly chosen as the main foreign language subject (Nguyen, 2012, 2017). This refers English subject as a form of formal language education as it is integrated in “an organized education model, structured and administered according to a given set of laws and norms” (Dib, 1988, p. 300) and learning English is achieved by following “a programme of instruction in an educational institution” with recognized qualifications (OECD, 2005, p. 5).

English language education outside the formal system in Vietnam has also been growing significantly. Various English language centers have been established with different forms of investment (Huong, 2010; Tran, 2018b) in terms of foreign and joint venture language schools, language centers of universities, government agencies, socio-economic organizations, and private enterprises. Learning English in this environment is referred to a non-formal form as it is performed separately from the structured system to address learners’ intention of specific goals achievement (La Belle, 1982) without formal qualifications (OECD, 2005). Additionally, the option for learning English on the Internet or social network sites is another common type to enhance English learners’ practice on skills of target language and the enhancement of their social interactions (Giang & Van Tuan, 2018; Phuong & Vo, 2018). This type refers to informal English learning activities which are outside of organized education to help learners’ knowledge and skills accumulated from everyday activities (La Belle, 1982) which are referred to unintentional learning without qualifications (OECD, 2005). These non-formal and informal English education forms have contributed to offering different options to meet huge demands of English learners of various types and improving the quality of English teaching and learning in Vietnam to meet the increasing trends of globalization and international interdependency (Van Van, 2010; Phuong & Vo, 2018). However, the question of which forms of English language education contributing to learners’ social relationships development regarding their future access to labor market opportunities has remained under-researched.

At the time of data collection, there are 35 colleges and 17 universities in the Mekong Delta region of South Vietnam, both public (n = 12) and private (n = 05) institutions. These universities follow the national curriculum framework structured by the Ministry of Education and Training. Of the indicated foreign languages, English is opted as the most preferred language by most universities and colleges in this region. A study by Phuong (2017) in this context revealed that 81.9% student participants agreed learning English as the most important reason to prepare them for their future jobs. The study also indicated the limitation of receiving English language courses resulted in students’ options for learning English independently and joining foreign language centers to gain their proficiency in English language. Apparently, English language proficiency (ELP) is revealed as an important connector to graduates’ job opportunities and various forms of English language education have drawn students’ attention for their language improvement. However, the issues of how students’ participation in different types of English learning is likely to enhance students’ ELP for their employment prospects have not been investigated.

The selected university for this study is based on four following reasons. First, it is one of the most important state higher education institution in the Mekong Delta region of South Vietnam which is considered as the regional center of cultural, scientific, and technical development. Second, it has become a member of ASEAN University Network Quality Assurance (AUN-QA) with several undergraduate study programs of Science and Technology which are accredited and recognized to meet the AUN-QA. Third, it has been considered as an important implementation partner of the Vietnamese government’s Project 2020 to satisfy the qualified human resource and integrate into regional and global labor markets. Finally, no research on how different forms of English language education contributing to social relationships development for employment prospects based on students’ experience had been done in the past.

Therefore, the context above suggests that the perceptions of English language learners of how English language education, formal, non-formal, and informal can contribute to establishing their social relationships connected to employability possibilities can serve as an important gap to be explored. Results from this study can contribute to the implications for English language education and its learners’ social capital development.

3.2 Research Question and Approach

The objective of the current study is to investigate (1) how English learning activities from formal, non-formal, and informal programs allow students to forge relationships with people, compared with the formal English education at the universities, and (2) how these social networks can help them identify employment opportunities and work references. Therefore, two following research questions are addressed:

  1. 1.

    In what way does English education contribute to establishing students’ social relationships and networks?

  2. 2.

    In what way do these students’ social relationships and networks established from English learning activities contribute to their graduate employability?

The study used a case study with mixed-method sequential exploratory design, which started from qualitative data collection through interviews, followed by quantitative data gathering through a questionnaire (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Case study was chosen because it allows the researchers to investigate an issue in depth and within its real context (Yin, 2014). Thus, a case study approach was relevant for this study as the development of social capital in English language education is a contemporary phenomenon in a real context of one university in the Mekong Delta in South Vietnam. Mixed method was employed as this approach can “give a richer and more reliable understanding of a phenomenon than a single approach would yield” (Cohen et al., 2018, p. 32). To gain insights into students’ experience of social capital development from their English language learning, semi-structured interviews were conducted before designing the questionnaire to get English language learners’ general views of developing social relationships and networks so as to increase job-related chances.

3.3 Data Collection and Analysis

The data collection involved two phases. In the first phase, we interviewed 15 participants (ten undergraduates and five graduates) to explore their perceptions of two aspects: (1) how English education established their social relationships, and (2) how their graduate employability could be developed based on their relationships established from English language education. These participants were identified and selected using purposive sampling (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018) after their approval for voluntary participation. The interviews are the best way to find out what other people think in mind, provide important insights, and identify other sources of evidence (Burns, 2000; Merriam, 2009). Semi-structured interviews in approximately 15 min were utilized for each participant. The interviews were recorded, and notes were taken at the same time. The findings were analyzed using a content analysis approach (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The interview data were coded and then themed. By the end of this phase, the findings revealed three forms of English language education with nine items (Table 6.3) that students participated, the perceived social relationships established from the identified forms of English education with 15 items (Table 6.5), and the perceived contributions of existing social relationships to their graduate employability prospects with first eight items (Table 6.6).

Among 15 first-phase participants, 73.34% of them majored in Information Technology and 26.66% of them in Tourism Management. These two fields of study were chosen as for their specific roles at the university being investigated. Information Technology is one of the undergraduate programs which attracts the highest number of students annually and was certified to meet the AUN-QA in this study context. Meanwhile, Tourism Management is considered as one of the undergraduate programs which is central to the human resources development for the tourism of the Mekong region with various networking activities with companies and employers. Most of the participants (66%) were undergraduates whose ages ranged between 18 and 22. The information of these interviewees is detailed in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Details of the interviewees
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In the second phase, a paper-based and online survey were developed. The snowball sampling technique (Merriam, 2009) was used in this phase. Based on the responses of 15 participants in the first phase and the reviewed literature, the questions were constructed. The questionnaire included the following parts:

  1. (1)

    demographic information;

  2. (2)

    forms of English education that students participated, with which they were asked to indicate English language forms that they had involved;

  3. (3)

    the forms of English education activities that established the participants’ social relationships and their perceived social relationships based on the English education forms that contributed to their graduate employability, with which they were asked to rate on the 5-point Likert scale (in which 1 = Completely disagree and 5 = Completely agree);

  4. (4)

    the possible social relationships that the participants could establish from English language forms, with which they were asked to indicate the social relationships that were appropriate for them; and

  5. (5)

    the employability prospects developed from English learning activities, with which the participants were asked to choose all options that were correct for their employment enhancement.

In total, 29 items were identified to clarify the way English language education contributes to social capital development:

  • 15 items indicating how English language education contributes to establishing students’ social relationships

  • 14 items indicating how students’ social relationships established from English learning activities contribute to their graduate employability

Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 20. Demographical data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. In total, 319 responses were recorded in the second phase. More than a half of participants were male (57%). Regarding their programs of study, 58.62% of them majored in Information Technology, 41.37% of them majored in Tourism Management. Most participants were undergraduates (95.61%). Regarding their age groups, 99.22% were between 18 and 22. In terms of their self-evaluated English proficiency, 53.91% of the participants revealed that they were at the level of basic communication, while 25.07% rated their English at the low proficient level. Only four participants (1.25%) indicated that their English level was excellent. At the time this study was conducted, fourteen participants (4.38%) had completed their programs and begun their current work. Details of the participants were shown in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Details of the survey participants
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The researchers then used frequencies, percentage, and the Likert scale to determine the forms of English education that students participated, the forms of English education and the development of social relationships, and the perceived contributions of existing social relationships to graduate employability. With gathered information and analyzed data, the researchers combined with the interview findings in the first phase as the key information and explanation about the results.

4 Findings and Discussion

4.1 Forms of English Education that Student Participated

The data revealed three types of English learning education, namely formal education, non-formal education and informal education that students had participated. In terms of English formal education, nine interviewees stated that they firstly involved in learning English delivered in their general education program at the primary, secondary, or high schools. Eleven interviewees mentioned their English learning participation from English courses required in their university programs. A specific explanation is:

I learnt English courses during ten years of general education and English courses in my university program. [Interviewee 13]

The interviewees mentioned different forms of non-formal English education they have undertaken. Fourteen interviewees participated in English language centers at the same time learning English from their school formal programs. The interviewees explained:

I joined evening classes at a language centre of a university and completed with a certificate. [Interview 3]

Together with learning English at the university, I attended a class to get a TOEIC certificate at a language centre. [Interview 5]

In terms of informal English education, eight interviewees revealed that they learned English by participating in English clubs, work-related activities, and social activities. Two examples of their explanations are:

I also involved in an extracurricular English course organised by an English club in Ninh Kieu. [Interviewee 6]

When I joined the trial work period, my company organised some activities for staff practising English and learning how to communicate in English. [Interviewee 9]

Eight of them joined online English learning from the Internet sites especially YouTube. Only one interviewee mentioned Facebook as another e-channel supporting her with learning English from people working in the same field. The interviewees explained:

Beside learning English at the language center, I also spent time learning English on the Internet online websites. [Interviewee 14]

I often learn English on some YouTube clips of teaching English. One program is “I am a native speaker” which helps to correct mistakes for Vietnamese. [Interviewee 8]

Together with learning English in the university program, I also learn English via Facebook groups. [Interview 2]

Descriptive analyses of quantitative data (Table 6.3) showed that the responses to the participation in the formal English education almost doubled that of the non-formal and informal English education. Among nine sub-forms of English language education, learning English from “general education” (93.4%) and “university education” (84.9%) appeared to be the most popular for the survey participants. Other next popular forms outside the formal English education system included learning at “English language centers” (63.3%) and on “Facebook groups” (61.8%). Out of 319, 97 (30.4%) students participated in “English websites”, followed by the same number of 71 (22.3%) students learning English from “online learning programs” and “work-related activities”. However, the participation in “English clubs” (13.2%) and “social activities” (11.0%) was reported as the least popular forms of informal English learning activities.

Table 6.3 Forms of English education that students participated
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The findings revealed that learning English from the formal education system was the most popular form compared to the other two forms (non-formal and in-formal English language learning). This resonates with the reality that English language is taught as a compulsory subject in the formal educational system, as mentioned by earlier studies (Bui & Nguyen, 2016; Le & Do, 2012; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2011; Nguyen, 2012, 2017). The findings also echo those of earlier studies in terms of the popularity of other English learning forms outside the formal education system that most English learners in this context can involve, particularly English language centers (Van Van, 2010; Phuong, 2017; Tran, 2018a, 2018b), or online English learning websites and learning English from social networks on the Internet (Giang & Van Tuan, 2018; Phuong & Vo, 2018).

4.2 Forms of English Education and the Development of Social Relationships

Data collected from the first phase showed that 14 out of 15 interviewed students confirmed that they could establish their social relationships from three forms of English education in terms of relationships with different people that they contacted from English language forms. The most common social relationship is with classmates and teachers and the most perceived social relationship development was developed from non-formal English education. In terms of formal English education, four students mentioned learning English at school could help them make friends with classmates and teachers. Meanwhile, eight interviewees revealed various relationships could be established from English learning outside the formal English programs, including making friends with classmates at the language centers, establishing good relationships with teachers at the language centers, widening relationships with lots of people working in different fields. Regarding informal English learning activities, five interviewees mentioned that their social relationships were developed with foreigners who were English teachers on YouTube or online English learning websites, experts working and studying in the same fields, and people joining English clubs or social activities clubs.

As revealed from the descriptive data analyses of the second phase, different social relationships established from three forms of English education were more clearly identified. Both formal and non-formal English education were perceived as the most popular forms establishing social relationships, especially with people of the same or different programs accounting from 75 to 85% respectively. The second most common type of social relationships was with people of the same hobbies (72.4%), developed from informal English education. The third common social relationship was with working people, developed from non-English education (65.2%) and informal English education (62.7%). Out of 319 participants, 193 (60.5%) reported establishing social relationships with their teachers in formal English education whose counterparts recorded no responses. Despite recorded with fewer responses, both non-formal (41.1%) and informal (39.5%) types of English education were indicated as other forms to develop students’ social relationships, particularly with foreign people. Insignificantly, out of 319, only 82 (25.7%) reported their social relationships established with employers from non-formal and informal English education forms. Details of the development of social relationships from different forms of English language education are described in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4 English language education and the development of social relationships
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Descriptive data analyses also showed students’ comparison among three forms of English education in establishing social relationships. The data (Table 6.5) indicated that learning English from non-formal (85.6%) and informal English (80.8%) forms were more agreed than that of the formal one (65.4%) in developing social relationships. Nearly a quarter (24.8%) responded uncertainly to developing social relationships from learning English from formal English program, compared to that from the other two forms.

Table 6.5 Forms of English education and the development of social relationships
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Out of 319, 164 participants (51.4%) reported that the non-formal English form was the most important contributor to developing their social relationships, compared to 30.4% and 18.2% of responses to that of the formal English programs and informal English education.

The findings of the first phase are consistent with those of the second phase in terms of more social relationships developed from learning English outside the formal system. For example, three out of 15 interviewees mentioned they had more friends when they learned English at language centers or joined extracurricular activities thanks to their English communication skill. One revealed his social relationships with foreign experts in the field of information technology.

Compared to learning English in university program, learning English at language center boosted my communication to connect with lots of friends and other relationships. [Interviewee 2]

Learning English outside the university could help me establish more relationships with those working in the field of information technology especially foreign experts. [Interviewee 4]

The current study identified the development of social relationships from different forms of English education regarding the relationship establishment with various types of people and the comparison of which English education form established most relationships. The findings are in line with Chen's (2017) clarification of potential social relationships for students’ future employment prospects employability established from formal education programs, particularly with teachers, professional experts, and friends who can be a great link to graduates’ employment prospects. In terms of the connection between social relationships and informal English education, the findings correspond to the views of previous authors (Batistic & Tymon, 2017; Kempster & Cope, 2010; Roulin & Bangerter, 2013; Tonkaboni, 2013) in relation to extracurricular experiences as the most useful means of social relationship development for employment engagement. The findings support previous studies in English language education in terms of strengthening social relationships thanks to communicative skills in English mentioned by Hamzah et al. (2015) and Pishghadam et al. (2011). The findings refer social capital as public good (Coleman, 1990) in terms of establishing the relationships among individuals in a social structure. However, the findings provided unclear specific English language learning activities for social relationships development. Additionally, this study provides unique findings that although formal English education could be reported as the most popular form in which students in this context participated, non-formal and informal English education forms were perceived as the most important contributor to establishing social relationships.

4.3 Perceived Contributions of Existing Social Relationships to Graduate Employability

In the first phase, only three out of 15 interviewed students perceived the contribution of existing social relationships from both non-formal and informal English language learning to graduate prospects in terms of job information exchange or supply, and promotion enhancement.

Learning English from a short course enhanced my relationships with many people whom I can exchange job information and helped my job promotion later. [Interviewee 14]

Learning English with friends outside the class could enhance my relationships...After graduation, these friends would be able to share job information with me. [Interviewee 12]

The qualitative data further showed that eight out of 15 interviewed students perceived there was a connection between learning English and their graduate employability in terms of improving knowledge of related work, passing job interviews, or enlarging foreign customers’ networks. However, the contributions of such social relationships to graduate employability from which form of English education was unclearly identified.

As indicated in the data of the second phase (Table 6.6), as many as 62.7% to 72.4% of 319 participants reported that existing social relationships gained from three forms of English education could contribute to their job opportunities. Among three forms of English education, informal English learning activities (72.4%) were more agreed than the other two forms. However, a quarter of 319 participants showed their feeling of uncertainty about the correlation between their job opportunities established from existing social relationships, with more uncertain responses to the formal English education form (26.3%).

Table 6.6 Perceived contributions of existing social relationships to graduate employability
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Descriptive data analyses of the second phase (Table 6.7) clearly showed the enhancement of employment possibilities from existing social relationships in terms of improving communicative skill, updating job information, improving job experience, and gaining job promotion. Among the 319 participants, 286 (89.6%) reported social relationships developed from learning English could enhance their communicative skill in English. To access updated job information, 219 (68.6%) out of 319 participants reported social relationships established from English education could widen their knowledge of their favorite work and 133 (41.7%) could update recruitment information. To improve job experiences, establishing social relationships from English education enabled students to learn interview experience (59.6%), exchange professional knowledge with experienced working people (48.6%), connect with people in the same field of work (38.9%), as well as understand potential customers’ interests and demands (0.3%). Out of 319, 130 (40.8%) reported the chance of obtaining their promotion from their social relationships.

Table 6.7 Employment enhancement possibilities from establishing social relationships
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The findings resonate with the studies by Roshid and Chowdhury (2013) and Jayasingha and Suraweera (2020) in terms of linking English communication skill to job prospect enhancement. This also reflects the vital role of teaching and learning English language for communication in the context of Vietnam to respond to opening Vietnamese door for the integration into the global economy (Nguyen, 2012, 2017) and international interdependency (Van Van, 2010). The findings also echo with earlier studies (Clarke, 2017; Fugate et al., 2004; Peeters et al., 2017; Roulin & Bangerter, 2013; Vu & Do, 2021) that social relationships can enhance future graduates’ employability in terms of providing job information or strengthening graduates’ job applications. However, the findings are not in line with Tomlinson's (2017) view about the correlation between employer engagement and graduate employability. Enhancing social relationships for future employability with those working in the same area was not highly concerned by the participants of this study.

5 Conclusion and Implications

The study investigates how English education has contributed to students’ social capital development. Findings revealed that although the formal English language education was perceived as the most popular form of students’ participation, the non-formal English programs were considered as the most significant contributor to constructing their social relationships, particularly the relationships with friends, teachers, and professional experts. Additionally, social relationships established from both non-formal and in-formal English education forms appeared to contribute to graduate employability than the formal one. Social relationships from these two forms of English language education helped students improve communicative skills, update job information, improve job experience, and gain job promotion, which are considered as strong bridging ties with employment prospects.

Such findings have two important implications for future research on English language education and social capital development. First, English learning activities outside the formal system are considered as being critical in constructing most students’ social relationships for their future employability. Therefore, content of subjects in the curriculum of the formal English education should be updated and adjusted in terms of more real-life practice activities such as work-related activities or virtual learning platforms. These channels enable students to gain more employment opportunities from different social relationships. Second, a framework of social capital development for English language education is highly recommended. This helps to identify clearer social relationships and networks for employability for English learners, and specific English learning activities to promote social capital development for graduate employability.

This case study explores social capital development from English language education from the experiences of students of two disciplines in one university, there are several factors which limit its findings. Future studies should replicate the study across different disciplines and university contexts. That would reveal various social relationships and networks established by English learners of different disciplines and possibilities of employment prospects from such social relationships. Further research should be undertaken to increase the number of graduates. That would produce deeper insights into job-related opportunities from social relationship development in English language education. Future studies are also recommended to examine other stakeholders such as lecturers’, program developers’, and employers’ experiences on social capital development for students through various channels of English learning activities. This would give thorough understanding of building crucial bridges between formal education and graduates’ employment opportunities.