Attitude of the Chinese Empire Toward the Catholic Church: From “Welcomed Religion” to “Heterodox Sect”

The chapter points out the view and the attitude of the Chinese authorities toward the Catholic Church and its members during the Tang and Yuan dynasties, and, mainly, during the Qing dynasty in the context of the Rite Controversy: on one side, the employment of the foreign missionaries by the Qing Court for their scientific knowledge, and the other side, the open hostility, especially by the intellectual circles, due to the challenge to the Confucian official ideology, to the sino-centric vision and to their evaluation of the relationship between Catholic missionaries and the colonial powers.

Appendix

A Chinese Opinion on the Christian Religion

(Chapter VI of The Catholic Church in China from 1860 to 1907, by Bertram WOLFERSTAN [London, Sands & Company], pp. 240–248 [digital copy, www.univie.ac.at])

The following is from an article in Die Katholischen Missionen of January 1907. Rev. Fr. Jansen, missionary in East Mongolia, has, after many exertions, succeeded in obtaining and translating sections of the Memorial.

What do the leading circles in China really think of Christianity and the Christian missions in China? To this question we get an answer through a Memorial issued from high official quarters, which bears the title Min-kiao Hsiang-ngan (Good relations between People and Church). It was composed in 1905 by two members of the Chinese Ministry of Public Instruction; and, by order of the famous Viceroy of Tche-li, Yuan Shi-k'ai, and was confidentially distributed to all the mandarins of the province of Tche-li, ostensibly for the purpose of better enlightening them on the essence and nature of the Christian Religion, and correspondingly regulating their attitude towards it.

The paper contains 37 pages and treats, in eight chapters, of the relations between China and the Christian missions.

• I. The First Chapter opens with a panegyric on the doctrine of Confucius. This doctrine, it is said, is all the more admirable, as it—in contradistinction to other religions—does not enjoin any faith in extraordinary things, such as the existence of good and bad spirits. Confucius does not dogmatize; he allows even doubt of, and criticism on, his own views. Nowhere else is the like found. The Buddhist and Mohammedan religions, naturalized in China, are living side by side in peace and concord.

  The Religion introduced from Europe has quite a different character. There, religious wars have always been the order of the day and have cost the lives of hundreds of thousands. With the arrival of the Christian Religion in China, these wars have been transferred thither also.

  Here follows a short history of the missions. In the ninth year of the reign of Wan-Li, of the Ming dynasty [1582], Matthew Ricci [S.J.] is stated to have come to China [The authors manifestly know nothing of the Franciscan mission during the Middle Ages]. More than one of these Jesuits at the Court of Peking have been favored with high honors by the Emperors. The decrees of persecution, which followed later on, had not for their object to oppose [the Christian] Religion, as such, but merely to put a stop to the continual quarrels between Pagans and Christians. Under pressure from foreign Powers, notably France, the free propagation and practice of the Christian Religion is nowadays granted.

• II. The Second Chapter is concerned with the treaties concluded with foreign Powers. These treaties—including those that refer to Religion—are stated to have been always detrimental to China. The articles, however, which have reference to the spreading of the Christian Religion, have been signed separately and have nothing to do with the other stipulations.

  The Article of the Treaty concluded with France [1860] runs thus, they say:—“The Catholic religion aims at urging all men to do good. All, therefore, who join it, shall enjoy protection and safety for their persons and property. They may, without restraint, meet for their religious practices, prayers, etc. The missionaries who, with friendly intention, travel through the country, shall everywhere find effectual protection on the part of the local authorities. Chinese who wish to conform to this religion, and keep its precepts, must not be molested or persecuted on that account. In conformity with this, all that has formerly been written and prescribed to hinder the religion of the Lord of the Heavens shall be cancelled in all the provinces.” …

  The chapter closes with the assertion that the Christians have oppressed the Heathens, thereby rousing the hatred of the same, and thus they themselves [the Christians] caused the burning of their churches and the massacre of their missionaries.

• III. The Third Chapter suggests how Europeans, especially missionaries, ought to be treated:—“We must show ourselves polite to them, since the Treaties order this. We should, therefore, let them preach freely, since we cannot hinder it; they, on their part, however, must not interfere with other people's affairs. Furthermore, we must not forget that they are our guests; and that, if treated as such, get a good opinion of us, and will, in their turn, treat us civilly too.” “We must not oppress, yet just as little, fear, and, least of all, fawn upon, them; we ought simply to abide by the conditions of the Treaties, and the rules of friendship. In former times we have repeatedly ill-treated Europeans.

  That was unjust, and we acted, in those cases, just like one who receives a distinguished guest into his house without offering him a cup of tea. This manner of proceeding must be changed.”

• IV. The Fourth Chapter enters into the relations between Heathens and Christians. Here, the Heathens are described as Ping-min (ordinary subjects) and the Christians as Kiao-min (members of the Church).

  Here, once more, the pamphlet reverts to the attitude of the authorities, especially towards the missionaries:

  It is true we have often ill-treated the missionaries. One of the principal causes of this lies in the fact that their exterior, language, manners and customs, differ widely from ours. Moreover, the chiefs of the Christians are foreigners, you understand. Hence it is that, when a Chinese wishes to become a Christian, his fellow-citizens try to dissuade him from doing so, because they do not like his becoming a foreigner. The Christian, on his part, considers himself as a foreigner too, and, as such, wishes to let his adversaries feel the power of which he is thus possessed. So, Christians and Heathens are opposed to one another like fire and water.

  At the root of this attitude lies a great error; for, the acceptance of a Religion is in exactly the same case as the acceptance of either a vegetable or a meat diet. It depends entirely on individual taste; why therefore find fault with it.

  Another cause of enmity are the duties and taxes, which both parties alike must pay, for the common good. A difficulty, however, arises with regard to the special expenses of Pagan ceremonies. But Christians cannot be forced to contribute to these; it would mean obliging them to transgress their religious precepts.

  Furthermore, there are Christians who make use of the influence of Europeans in order to oppress their Heathen fellow-citizens. The latter, naturally, repay them in their own coin. Such Christians, however, reflect little credit on their Religion, for Jesus says:—'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.' They should be denounced, both to the mandarin and their priest. Still, one ought to guard against charging the Church, as such, with the misdeeds of individuals; for, so one excites hatred against the Church, and conjures up those complications in which China can only be the loser. For, just as the murderers, so also the murdered, are Chinese; while it is our own country which has to pay the indemnities after such massacres.

• V. The Fifth Chapter enlarges upon the origin and propagation of the Christian Religion. Here, it is evident that the authors, in stating their case, depend exclusively on Protestant sources. First come facts about the life of Jesus. Then the Greek Schism and the Reformation are briefly touched upon, with all the stock accusations against the pre-Reformation Church. Finally, the loss of Temporal Power of the Pope is emphasized—all this in language elsewhere employed by fanatical Protestants. A digression follows on the Boxer Rising which, indeed, is condemned, but, in the end, placed to the account of bad Christians, although the authors, by all sorts of fine words, endeavor to keep up the appearance of fair-mindedness.

• VI. The Sixth Chapter endeavors to give a description of the Christian Religion. It is couched in such wise that the contradiction between precept and practice on the part of Christians stands out in the boldest possible relief. To this end, the writers select from the Gospel some of its most beautiful doctrines. The command to love one's neighbor as oneself is spoken highly of; likewise, Christ's injunction to forgive until seventy times seven; to rejoice if reviled and persecuted; to do good to one's enemies; and to offer the left cheek if struck on the right:—“Yet,” so the Memorial continues, “do those Christians, then, act up to these instructions, who make loud complaint about trifles, or who make use of their title of Christians to oppress the Heathens? Is not this acting directly contrary to the teaching of Jesus?” Instead of forever carrying on lawsuits for the sake of temporal advantage, the Christians—we read in the pamphlet—should pay heed to the advice of Christ to the young man, viz., to sell everything, give to the poor and follow Him.

  The chapter winds up with the protestation:—“If we here expose the faults of the Christians, this does not arise from hatred or bad intention; we only establish the facts.” Still, it is certain that, whoever reads this chapter, will get a very bad impression of the Christians.

• VII. The Seventh Chapter is devoted to the litigation which is carried on relating to the missions and Christians:—“The greatest troubles,” it is stated, “which China has had for the last ten years are these law- suits. They have cost numerous people their lives, and ourselves heavy fines, and even portions of our territory. The other religions have never caused us such embarrassments. Neither did the Catholic religion do so, until the end of the Ming dynasty [i.e., in the first period of the Catholic religion, from 1583 to 1644]. But nowadays it is not a fingers breadth behind the others.”

• VIII. The Eighth Chapter glances at the State of Religion in other countries:—“In Europe and America religious toleration prevails. The European Governments withdrew from the tutelage of the Church in the eighteenth century. To-day, both have their own separate sphere of action, in such wise, however, that a Christian, by membership of the Church, does not cease to be a citizen of his own country. The number of Christians who are devoted to their native land is very great.” “Among Chinese Christians also, there are, doubtless, many who understand this; still, some evidently do not. And this is unfortunate since—our country being very weak compared to her opponents - we must, even if united like children of a family, be prepared for possible oppression. But, to what misery do we expose ourselves, if we live in discord?”

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  “These are, in brief outline,” continues Die Katholischen Missionen, “the contents of this — in more than one respect — remarkable Memorial. With all its exaggerations, inaccuracies, and distorted views, which are, indeed, easily understood, a certain striving for objective judgment must, on the whole, be acknowledged. It would indeed mean progress, if the Chinese authorities, in their attitude towards the Christian religion, would but substitute a little political moderation, such as here recommended, for open hatred or treacherous malice.”

  At the same time, the Memorial shows clearly that the deepest cause of the aversion to Christianity is not the Religion, as such, but its close connection with the so-called political Protective Powers. That China distrusts them, and returns hatred and aversion for their violent encroachment upon her most intimate domestic affairs. When she sees that the Mission continually has recourse to the armed force of the Protective Power concerned; and supported thereby, triumphantly carries through its lawsuits and claims for indemnity, what wonder that the distrust and aversion of the Chinese is extended to the Church and Missions too; and that the latter appear to them as a thorn in the flesh…