Abstract
There has been an unprecedented scientific exploration of post-COVID-19 symptoms of the recovered patients put up with the novel coronavirus (nCoV), also called as SARS-CoV-2 infection. There have been reports of breathing difficulty, weakness, and gastrointestinal diarrhea, post SARS-CoV-2 infection recovery. Surprisingly, the thoracic computed tomography scan of the lungs and sonography of the whole abdomen appear normal in such patients. The microbiome of the body consists of all the microbes viz. bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc. and its dysbiosis often leads to depletion in immunity. Diverse microbial communities maintain the micro-ecosystem of the gut and lungs. Therefore, it has been considered of interest to assess the studies on the effect of COVID-19 on the microbiota of the lungs and gut to ascertain its link with the escalation of post-infection symptoms and to explore the pathoprofiles of gut–lungs microbiome crosstalk due to novel coronavirus which negatively affects the host immunity. Although repurposing of several drugs has been carried out to tackle the COVID-19 disease, ever since its outbreak, there has been no evidence regarding the efficacy of any specific chemotherapeutic against the novel viral-induced host gut–lungs microbiome crosstalks.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aan FJ, Glibetic N, Montoya-Uribe V, Matter ML (2022) 2.34 - COVID-19 and the microbiome: the gut-lung connection. In: Glibetic M (ed) Comprehensive gut microbiota. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 442–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819265-8.00048-6
Alotaibi MH, Bahammam SA (2021) Determining the correlation between comorbidities and MERS-CoV mortality in Saudi Arabia. J Taibah Univ Medical Sci 16(4):591–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtumed.2021.02.003
Anwar F, Altayb HN, Al-Abbasi FA, Al-Malki AL, Kamal MA, Kumar V (2021) Antiviral effects of probiotic metabolites on COVID-19. J Biomol Struct Dyn 39(11):4175–4184. https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1775123
Bartemes KR, Kita H (2012) Dynamic role of epithelium-derived cytokines in asthma. Clin Immunol 143(3):222–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2012.03.001
Bassis CM, Erb-Downward JR, Dickson RP, Freeman CM, Schmidt TM, Young VB, Beck JM, Curtis JL, Huffnagle GB (2015) Analysis of the upper respiratory tract microbiotas as the source of the lung and gastric microbiotas in healthy individuals. mBio 6(2):e00037. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00037-15
Belouzard S, Millet JK, Licitra BN, Whittaker GR (2012) Mechanisms of coronavirus cell entry mediated by the viral spike protein. Viruses 4(6):1011–1033. https://doi.org/10.3390/v4061011
Beniac DR, Andonov A, Grudeski E, Booth TF (2006) Architecture of the SARS coronavirus prefusion spike. Nat Struct Mol Biol 13(8):751–752. https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb1123
Berger AK, Mainou BA (2018) Interactions between enteric bacteria and eukaryotic viruses impact the outcome of infection. Viruses 10(1):19. https://doi.org/10.3390/v10010019
Brandtzaeg P, Kiyono H, Pabst R, Russell MW (2008) Terminology: nomenclature of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. Mucosal Iimmunol 1(1):31–37. https://doi.org/10.1038/mi.2007.9
Brown RL, Sequeira RP, Clarke TB (2017) The microbiota protects against respiratory infection via GM-CSF signaling. Nat Commun 8(1):1512. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-01803-x
Burchill E, Lymberopoulos E, Menozzi E, Budhdeo S, McIlroy JR, Macnaughtan J, Sharma N (2021) The unique impact of COVID-19 on human gut microbiome research. Front Med 8:652464. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.652464
Charlson ES, Chen J, Custers-Allen R, Bittinger K, Li H, Sinha R, Hwang J, Bushman FD, Collman RG (2010) Disordered microbial communities in the upper respiratory tract of cigarette smokers. PLoS One 5(12):e15216. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015216
Chen PL, Lee NY, Cia CT, Ko WC, Hsueh PR (2020) A review of treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): therapeutic repurposing and unmet clinical needs. Front Pharmacol 11:584956. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.584956
Chen Z, Lv Y, Xu H, Deng L (2021) Herbal medicine, gut microbiota, and COVID-19. Front Pharmacol 12:646560–646560. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.646560
Chiossone L, Dumas P-Y, Vienne M, Vivier E (2018) Natural killer cells and other innate lymphoid cells in cancer. Nature Rev Immunol 18(11):671–688. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-018-0061-z
D'Amico F, Baumgart DC, Danese S, Peyrin-Biroulet L (2020) Diarrhea during COVID-19 infection: pathogenesis, epidemiology, prevention, and management. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 18(8):1663–1672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2020.04.001
de Oliveira GLV, Oliveira CNS, Pinzan CF, de Salis LVV, Cardoso CRB (2021) Microbiota modulation of the gut-lung Axis in COVID-19. Front Immunol 12:635471. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.635471
d’Ettorre G, Ceccarelli G, Marazzato M, Campagna G, Pinacchio C, Alessandri F, Ruberto F, Rossi G, Celani L, Scagnolari C, Mastropietro C, Trinchieri V, Recchia GE, Mauro V, Antonelli G, Pugliese F, Mastroianni CM (2020) Challenges in the management of SARS-CoV2 infection: the role of Oral bacteriotherapy as complementary therapeutic strategy to avoid the progression of COVID-19. Front Med 7:389. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.00389.eCollection.2020
Dhar D, Mohanty A (2020) Gut microbiota and Covid-19- possible link and implications. Virus Res 285:198018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198018
Dickson RP, Erb-Downward JR, Huffnagle GB (2014) Toward an ecology of the lung: new conceptual models of pulmonary microbiology and pneumonia pathogenesis. The Lancet Respir Med 2(3):238–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213-2600(14)70028-1
Dong TS, Gupta A (2019) Influence of early life, diet, and the environment on the microbiome. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 17(2):231–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2018.08.067
Enaud R, Prevel R, Ciarlo E, Beaufils F, Wieërs G, Guery B, Delhaes L (2020) The gut-lung Axis in health and respiratory diseases: a place for inter-organ and inter-kingdom Crosstalks. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 10:9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.00009
Fagundes CT, Amaral FA, Vieira AT, Soares AC, Pinho V, Nicoli JR, Vieira LQ, Teixeira MM, Souza DG (2012) Transient TLR activation restores inflammatory response and ability to control pulmonary bacterial infection in germfree mice. J Immunol 188(3):1411. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1101682
Fan J, Li X, Gao Y, Zhou J, Wang S, Huang B, Wu J, Cao Q, Chen Y, Wang Z, Luo D, Zhou T, Li R, Shang Y, Nie X (2020) The lung tissue microbiota features of 20 deceased patients with COVID-19. J Infect 81(3):e64–e67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.047
Flierl MA, Rittirsch D, Nadeau BA, Chen AJ, Sarma JV, Zetoune FS, McGuire SR, List RP, Day DE, Hoesel LM, Gao H, Van Rooijen N, Huber-Lang MS, Neubig RR, Ward PA (2007) Phagocyte-derived catecholamines enhance acute inflammatory injury. Nature 449(7163):721–725. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06185
Fox AC, McConnell KW, Yoseph BP, Breed E, Liang Z, Clark AT, O'Donnell D, Zee-Cheng B, Jung E, Dominguez JA, Dunne WM, Burd EM, Coopersmith CM (2012) The endogenous bacteria alter gut epithelial apoptosis and decrease mortality following Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Shock 38(5):508–514. https://doi.org/10.1097/SHK.0b013e31826e47e8
Gao K, Nguyen DD, Chen J, Wang R, Wei G-W (2020) Repositioning of 8565 existing drugs for COVID-19. J Phys Chem Lett 11(13):5373–5382. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c01579
Ghimire S, Sharma S, Patel A, Budhathoki R, Chakinala R, Khan H, Lincoln M, Georgeston M (2021) Diarrhea is associated with increased severity of disease in COVID-19: systemic review and Metaanalysis. SN Compr Clin Med 3(1):28–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-020-00662-w
Gill JR, Sheng ZM, Ely SF, Guinee DG, Beasley MB, Suh J, Deshpande C, Mollura DJ, Morens DM, Bray M, Travis WD, Taubenberger JK (2010) Pulmonary pathologic findings of fatal 2009 pandemic influenza a/H1N1 viral infections. Arch Path Lab Med 134(2):235–243. https://doi.org/10.5858/134.2.235
Grier A, McDavid A, Wang B, Qiu X, Java J, Bandyopadhyay S, Yang H, Holden-Wiltse J, Kessler HA, Gill AL, Huyck H, Falsey AR, Topham DJ, Scheible KM, Caserta MT, Pryhuber GS, Gill SR (2018) Neonatal gut and respiratory microbiota: coordinated development through time and space. Microbiome 6(1):193. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-018-0566-5
Groves HT, Higham SL, Moffatt MF, Cox MJ, Tregoning JS (2020) Respiratory viral infection alters the gut microbiota by inducing inappetence. mBio 11(1):e03236-19. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.03236-19
Gu S, Chen Y, Wu Z, Chen Y, Gao H, Lv L, Guo F, Zhang X, Luo R, Huang C, Lu H, Zheng B, Zhang J, Yan R, Zhang H, Jiang H, Xu Q, Guo J, Gong Y, Tang L, Li L (2020) Alterations of the gut microbiota in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 or H1N1 influenza. Clin Infect Dis 71(10):2669–2678. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa709
Guan W-J, Liang W-H, Zhao Y, Liang H-R, Chen Z-S, Li Y-M, Liu X-Q, Chen R-C, Tang C-L, Wang T, Ou C-Q, Li L, Chen P-Y, Sang L, Wang W, Li J-F, Li C-C, Ou L-M, Cheng B, Xiong S, Ni Z-Y, Xiang J, Hu Y, Liu L, Shan H, Lei C-L, Peng Y-X, Wei L, Liu Y, Hu Y-H, Peng P, Wang J-M, Liu J-Y, Chen Z, Li G, Zheng Z-J, Qiu S-Q, Luo J, Ye C-J, Zhu S-Y, Cheng L-L, Ye F, Li S-Y, Zheng J-P, Zhang N-F, Zhong N-S, He J-X, China Medical Treatment Expert Group for C (2020b) Comorbidity and its impact on 1590 patients with COVID-19 in China: a nationwide analysis. Eur Respir J 55(5):2000547. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.00547-2020
Guan W-J, Ni Z-Y, Hu Y, Liang W-H, Ou C-Q, He J-X, Liu L, Shan H, Lei C-l, Hui DSC, Du B, Li L-J, Zeng G, Yuen K-Y, Chen R-C, Tang C-l, Wang T, Chen P-Y, Xiang J, Li S-Y, Wang J-l, Liang Z-J, Peng Y-X, Wei L, Liu Y, Hu Y-H, Peng P, Wang J-M, Liu J-Y, Chen Z, Li G, Zheng Z-J, Qiu S-Q, Luo J, Ye C-J, Zhu S-Y, Zhong N-S (2020a) Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. New Engl J Med 382(18):1708–1720. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032
Hanada S, Pirzadeh M, Carver KY, Deng JC (2018) Respiratory viral infection-induced microbiome alterations and secondary bacterial pneumonia. Front Immunol 9:2640
Hill C, Guarner F, Reid G, Gibson GR, Merenstein DJ, Pot B, Morelli L, Canani RB, Flint HJ, Salminen S, Calder PC, Sanders ME (2014) The international scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics consensus statement on the scope and appropriate use of the term probiotic. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 11(8):506–514. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2014.66
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z, Yu T, Xia J, Wei Y, Wu W, Xie X, Yin W, Li H, Liu M, Xiao Y, Gao H, Guo L, Xie J, Wang G, Jiang R, Gao Z, Jin Q, Wang J, Cao B (2020a) Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet (London, England) 395(10223):497–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30183-5
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z, Yu T, Xia J, Wei Y, Wu W, Xie X, Yin W, Li H, Liu M, Xiao Y, Gao H, Guo L, Xie J, Wang G, Jiang R, Gao Z, Jin Q, Wang J, Cao B (2020b) Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan. China Lancet 395(10223):497–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5
Huffnagle GB, Dickson RP, Lukacs NW (2017) The respiratory tract microbiome and lung inflammation: a two-way street. Mucosal Immunol 10(2):299–306. https://doi.org/10.1038/mi.2016.108
Hui DSC, Zumla A (2019) Severe acute respiratory syndrome: historical, epidemiologic, and clinical features. Infect Dis Clin N Am 33(4):869–889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2019.07.001
Human Microbiome Project Consortium (2012) Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature 486(7402):207–214. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11234
Ichinohe T, Pang IK, Kumamoto Y, Peaper DR, Ho JH, Murray TS, Iwasaki A (2011) Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza a virus infection. PNAS 108(13):5354–5359. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1019378108
Imai Y, Kuba K, Rao S, Huan Y, Guo F, Guan B, Yang P, Sarao R, Wada T, Leong-Poi H, Crackower MA, Fukamizu A, Hui CC, Hein L, Uhlig S, Slutsky AS, Jiang C, Penninger JM (2005) Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from severe acute lung failure. Nature 436(7047):112–116. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03712
Invernizzi R, Lloyd CM, Molyneaux PL (2020) Respiratory microbiome and epithelial interactions shape immunity in the lungs. Immunol 160(2):171–182. https://doi.org/10.1111/imm.13195
Jiang X, Hou X, Tang L, Jiang Y, Ma G, Li Y (2016) A phase trial of the oral lactobacillus casei vaccine polarizes Th2 cell immunity against transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus infection. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100(17):7457–7469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-7424-9
Jung Y-J, Lee Y-T, Ngo VL, Cho Y-H, Ko E-J, Hong S-M, Kim K-H, Jang J-H, Oh J-S, Park M-K, Kim C-H, Sun J, Kang S-M (2017) Heat-killed lactobacillus casei confers broad protection against influenza a virus primary infection and develops heterosubtypic immunity against future secondary infection. Sci Rep 7(1):17360. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17487-8
Lai HY, Rogers DF (2010) Mucus hypersecretion in asthma: intracellular signalling pathways as targets for pharmacotherapy. Current Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 10(1):67–76. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACI.0b013e328334643a
Lamers MM, Beumer J, van der Vaart J, Knoops K, Puschhof J, Breugem TI, Ravelli RBG, Paul van Schayck J, Mykytyn AZ, Duimel HQ, van Donselaar E, Riesebosch S, Kuijpers HJH, Schipper D, van de Wetering WJ, de Graaf M, Koopmans M, Cuppen E, Peters PJ, Haagmans BL, Clevers H (2020) SARS-CoV-2 productively infects human gut enterocytes. Science 369(6499):50–54. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc1669
Lee B, Moon KM, Kim CY (2018) Tight junction in the intestinal epithelium: its association with diseases and regulation by phytochemicals. J Immunol Res 2018:2645465. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2645465
Li F, Berardi M, Li W, Farzan M, Dormitzer PR, Harrison SC (2006) Conformational states of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein ectodomain. J Virol 80(14):6794–6800. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.02744-05
Li N, Ma W-T, Pang M, Fan Q-L, Hua J-L (2019) The commensal microbiota and viral infection: a comprehensive review. Front Immunol 10:1551
Liu J, Liu S, Zhang Z, Lee X, Wu W, Huang Z, Lei Z, Xu W, Chen D, Wu X, Guo Y, Peng L, Lin B, Chong Y, Mou X, Shi M, Lan P, Chen T, Zhao W, Gao Z (2021) Association between the nasopharyngeal microbiome and metabolome in patients with COVID-19. Synth Syst Biotechnol 6(3):135–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.synbio.2021.06.002
Lloyd CM, Marsland BJ (2017) Lung homeostasis: influence of age, microbes, and the immune system. Immunity 46(4):549–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2017.04.005
Lundstrom K (2020) Coronavirus pandemic—therapy and vaccines. Biomedicine 8(5):109. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8050109
Lv L, Gu S, Jiang H, Yan R, Chen Y, Chen Y, Luo R, Huang C, Lu H, Zheng B, Zhang H, Xia J, Tang L, Sheng G, Li L (2021) Gut mycobiota alterations in patients with COVID-19 and H1N1 infections and their associations with clinical features. Commun Biol 4(1):480. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-021-02036-x
Maldonado Galdeano C, Cazorla SI, Lemme Dumit JM, Vélez E, Perdigón G (2019) Beneficial effects of probiotic consumption on the immune system. Ann Nutr Metab 74(2):115–124. https://doi.org/10.1159/000496426
Mohan SV, Hemalatha M, Kopperi H, Ranjith I, Kumar AK (2021) SARS-CoV-2 in environmental perspective: occurrence, persistence, surveillance, inactivation and challenges. Chem Eng J 405:126893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126893
Morris DE, Cleary DW, Clarke SC (2017) Secondary bacterial infections associated with influenza pandemics. Fron Microbiol 8:1041. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.01041
Namasivayam S, Sher A, Glickman MS, Wipperman MF (2018) The microbiome and tuberculosis: early evidence for cross talk. mBio 9(5):e01420-18. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01420-18
Nandi S, Roy H, Gummadi A, Saxena AK (2021) Exploring spike protein of novel coronavirus and to inhibit the viability utilizing natural agents. Curr Drug Targets 22:2006–2020
Peiris JS, Chu CM, Cheng VC, Chan KS, Hung IF, Poon LL, Law KI, Tang BS, Hon TY, Chan CS, Chan KH, Ng JS, Zheng BJ, Ng WL, Lai RW, Guan Y, Yuen KY (2003) Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: a prospective study. Lancet 361(9371):1767–1772. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13412-5
Perlot T, Penninger JM (2013) ACE2 - from the renin-angiotensin system to gut microbiota and malnutrition. Microbes Infect 15(13):866–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2013.08.003
Petersen C, Round JL (2014) Defining dysbiosis and its influence on host immunity and disease. Cell Microbiol 16(7):1024–1033. https://doi.org/10.1111/cmi.12308
Plotkowski MC, Bajolet-Laudinat O, Puchelle E (1993) Cellular and molecular mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to respiratory mucosa. Eur Respir J 6(6):903–916
Ramírez-Labrada AG, Isla D, Artal A, Arias M, Rezusta A, Pardo J, Gálvez EM (2020) The influence of lung microbiota on lung carcinogenesis, immunity, and immunotherapy. Trends Cancer 6(2):86–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trecan.2019.12.007
Rasmussen TT, Kirkeby LP, Poulsen K, Reinholdt J, Kilian M (2000) Resident aerobic microbiota of the adult human nasal cavity. APMIS 108(10):663–675. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0463.2000.d01-13.x
Robak OH, Heimesaat MM, Kruglov AA, Prepens S, Ninnemann J, Gutbier B, Reppe K, Hochrein H, Suter M, Kirschning CJ, Marathe V, Buer J, Hornef MW, Schnare M, Schneider P, Witzenrath M, Bereswill S, Steinhoff U, Suttorp N, Sander LE, Chaput C, Opitz B (2018) Antibiotic treatment–induced secondary IgA deficiency enhances susceptibility to Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. J Clin Investig 128(8):3535–3545. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI97065
Scanlon ST, McKenzie AN (2012) Type 2 innate lymphoid cells: new players in asthma and allergy. Current Opin Immunol 24(6):707–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2012.08.009
Schirmer M, Smeekens SP, Vlamakis H, Jaeger M, Oosting M, Franzosa EA, Ter Horst R, Jansen T, Jacobs L, Bonder MJ, Kurilshikov A, Fu J, Joosten LAB, Zhernakova A, Huttenhower C, Wijmenga C, Netea MG, Xavier RJ (2016) Linking the human gut microbiome to inflammatory cytokine production capacity. Cell 167(4):1125–1136.e1128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.10.020
Schuijt TJ, Lankelma JM, Scicluna BP, de Sousa e Melo F, JJTH R, de Boer JD, Hoogendijk AJ, de Beer R, de Vos A, Belzer C, de Vos WM, van der Poll T, Wiersinga WJ (2016b) The gut microbiota plays a protective role in the host defence against pneumococcal pneumonia. Gut 65(4):575. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309728
Schuijt TJ, Lankelma JM, Scicluna BP, de Sousa e Melo F, Roelofs JJ, de Boer JD, Hoogendijk AJ, de Beer R, de Vos A, Belzer C, de Vos WM, van der Poll T, Wiersinga WJ (2016a) The gut microbiota plays a protective role in the host defence against pneumococcal pneumonia. Gut 65(4):575–583. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309728
Schult D, Reitmeier S, Koyumdzhieva P, Lahmer T, Middelhoff M, Erber J, Schneider J, Kager J, Frolova M, Horstmann J, Fricke L, Steiger K, Jesinghaus M, Janssen K-P, Protzer U, Neuhaus K, Schmid RM, Haller D, Quante M (2022) Gut bacterial dysbiosis and instability is associated with the onset of complications and mortality in COVID-19. Gut Microbes 14(1):2031840. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2022.2031840
Shen Z, Xiao Y, Kang L, Ma W, Shi L, Zhang L, Zhou Z, Yang J, Zhong J, Yang D, Guo L, Zhang G, Li H, Xu Y, Chen M, Gao Z, Wang J, Ren L, Li M (2020) Genomic diversity of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 in patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Clinical Infect Dis 71(15):713–720. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa203
Soffritti I, D’Accolti M, Fabbri C, Passaro A, Manfredini R, Zuliani G, Libanore M, Franchi M, Contini C, Caselli E (2021) Oral microbiome dysbiosis is associated with symptoms severity and local immune/inflammatory response in COVID-19 patients: a cross-sectional study. Front Microbiol 12:687513. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.687513
Sommariva M, Le Noci V, Bianchi F, Camelliti S, Balsari A, Tagliabue E, Sfondrini L (2020) The lung microbiota: role in maintaining pulmonary immune homeostasis and its implications in cancer development and therapy. Cell Mol Life Sci 77(14):2739–2749. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-020-03452-8
Song Y, Liu P, Shi XL, Chu YL, Zhang J, Xia J, Gao XZ, Qu T, Wang MY (2020) SARS-CoV-2 induced diarrhoea as onset symptom in patient with COVID-19. Gut 69(6):1143–1144. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2020-320891
Sperandio V, Torres AG, Jarvis B, Nataro JP, Kaper JB (2003) Bacteria-host communication: the language of hormones. PNAS USA 100(15):8951–8956. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1537100100
Stein MM, Hrusch CL, Gozdz J, Igartua C, Pivniouk V, Murray SE, Ledford JG, Marques Dos Santos M, Anderson RL, Metwali N, Neilson JW, Maier RM, Gilbert JA, Holbreich M, Thorne PS, Martinez FD, von Mutius E, Vercelli D, Ober C, Sperling AI (2016) Innate immunity and asthma risk in Amish and Hutterite farm children. New Engl J Med 375(5):411–421. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1508749
Sulaiman I, Chung M, Angel L, Tsay J-CJ, Wu BG, Yeung ST, Krolikowski K, Li Y, Duerr R, Schluger R, Thannickal SA, Koide A, Rafeq S, Barnett C, Postelnicu R, Wang C, Banakis S, Pérez-Pérez L, Shen G, Jour G, Meyn P, Carpenito J, Liu X, Ji K, Collazo D, Labarbiera A, Amoroso N, Brosnahan S, Mukherjee V, Kaufman D, Bakker J, Lubinsky A, Pradhan D, Sterman DH, Weiden M, Heguy A, Evans L, Uyeki TM, Clemente JC, de Wit E, Schmidt AM, Shopsin B, Desvignes L, Wang C, Li H, Zhang B, Forst CV, Koide S, Stapleford KA, Khanna KM, Ghedin E, Segal LN (2021) Microbial signatures in the lower airways of mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients associated with poor clinical outcome. Nature Microbiol 6(10):1245–1258. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-021-00961-5
Taghinezhad-S S, Mohseni AH, Bermúdez-Humarán LG, Casolaro V, Cortes-Perez NG, Keyvani H, Simal-Gandara J (2021) Probiotic-based vaccines may provide effective protection against COVID-19 acute respiratory disease. Vaccine 9(5):466. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9050466
Tang A, Tong ZD, Wang HL, Dai YX, Li KF, Liu JN, Wu WJ, Yuan C, Yu ML, Li P, Yan JB (2020a) Detection of novel coronavirus by RT-PCR in stool specimen from asymptomatic child. China Emerg Infectious Dis 26(6):1337–1339. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2606.200301
Tang L, Gu S, Gong Y, Li B, Lu H, Li Q, Zhang R, Gao X, Wu Z, Zhang J, Zhang Y, Li L (2020b) Clinical significance of the correlation between changes in the major intestinal bacteria species and COVID-19 severity. Engineering 6(10):1178–1184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2020.05.013
Tao W, Zhang G, Wang X, Guo M, Zeng W, Xu Z, Cao D, Pan A, Wang Y, Zhang K, Ma X, Chen Z, Jin T, Liu L, Weng J, Zhu S (2020) Analysis of the intestinal microbiota in COVID-19 patients and its correlation with the inflammatory factor IL-18. Med Microecol 5:100023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medmic.2020.100023
Thevaranjan N, Puchta A, Schulz C, Naidoo A, Szamosi JC, Verschoor CP, Loukov D, Schenck LP, Jury J, Foley KP, Schertzer JD, Larché MJ, Davidson DJ, Verdú EF, Surette MG, Bowdish DME (2017) Age-associated microbial dysbiosis promotes intestinal permeability, systemic inflammation, and macrophage dysfunction. Cell Host Microbe 21(4):455–466.e454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2017.03.002
Tonetti FR, Islam MA, Vizoso-Pinto MG, Takahashi H, Kitazawa H, Villena J (2020) Nasal priming with immunobiotic lactobacilli improves the adaptive immune response against influenza virus. Int Immunopharmacol 78:106115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2019.106115
Venegas-Borsellino C, Sankararaman S, Roche K, Burns J, Landis RM (2021) Impact of COVID-19 on the intestinal microbiome. Curr Nutr Rep 10(4):300–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-021-00375-z
Vignesh R, Swathirajan CR, Tun ZH, Rameshkumar MR, Solomon SS, Balakrishnan P (2020) Could perturbation of gut microbiota possibly exacerbate the severity of COVID-19 via cytokine storm? Front Immunol 11:607734. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.607734
Walters WA, Xu Z, Knight R (2014) Meta-analyses of human gut microbes associated with obesity and IBD. FEBS Lett 588(22):4223–4233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2014.09.039
Wang Y, Li X, Ge T, Xiao Y, Liao Y, Cui Y, Zhang Y, Ho W, Yu G, Zhang T (2016) Probiotics for prevention and treatment of respiratory tract infections in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Medicine 95(31):e4509
Wilks J, Golovkina T (2012) Influence of microbiota on viral infections. PLoS Pathog 8(5):e1002681. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002681
Wölfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, Seilmaier M, Zange S, Müller MA, Niemeyer D, Jones TC, Vollmar P, Rothe C, Hoelscher M, Bleicker T, Brünink S, Schneider J, Ehmann R, Zwirglmaier K, Drosten C, Wendtner C (2020) Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature 581(7809):465–469. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2196-x
Worldometer. 2020. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
Xu K, Cai H, Shen Y, Ni Q, Chen Y, Hu S, Li J, Wang H, Yu L, Huang H, Qiu Y, Wei G, Fang Q, Zhou J, Sheng J, Liang T, Li L (2020b) Management of COVID-19: the Zhejiang experience. Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 49(2):147–157. https://doi.org/10.3785/j.issn.1008-9292.2020.02.02
Xu Y, Li X, Zhu B, Liang H, Fang C, Gong Y, Guo Q, Sun X, Zhao D, Shen J, Zhang H, Liu H, Xia H, Tang J, Zhang K, Gong S (2020a) Characteristics of pediatric SARS-CoV-2 infection and potential evidence for persistent fecal viral shedding. Nat Med 26(4):502–505. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0817-4
Yamashiro Y (2017) Gut microbiota in health and disease. Ann Nutr Meta 71(3–4):242–246. https://doi.org/10.1159/000481627
Yassour M, Lim MY, Yun HS, Tickle TL, Sung J, Song Y-M, Lee K, Franzosa EA, Morgan XC, Gevers D, Lander ES, Xavier RJ, Birren BW, Ko G, Huttenhower C (2016) Sub-clinical detection of gut microbial biomarkers of obesity and type 2 diabetes. Genome Med 8(1):17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13073-016-0271-6
Yitbarek A, Taha-Abdelaziz K, Hodgins DC, Read L, Nagy É, Weese JS, Caswell JL, Parkinson J, Sharif S (2018) Gut microbiota-mediated protection against influenza virus subtype H9N2 in chickens is associated with modulation of the innate responses. Sci Rep 8(1):13189. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31613-0
Zacharias M, Kashofer K, Wurm P, Regitnig P, Schütte M, Neger M, Ehmann S, Marsh LM, Kwapiszewska G, Loibner M, Birnhuber A, Leitner E, Thüringer A, Winter E, Sauer S, Pollheimer MJ, Vagena FR, Lackner C, Jelusic B, Ogilvie L, Durdevic M, Timmermann B, Lehrach H, Zatloukal K, Gorkiewicz G (2022) Host and microbiome features of secondary infections in lethal covid-19. medRxiv:2022.2002.2018.22270995. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.02.18.22270995
Zhang H, Ai JW, Yang W, Zhou X, He F, Xie S, Zeng W, Li Y, Yu Y, Gou X, Li Y, Wang X, Su H, Zhu Z, Xu T, Zhang W (2021b) Metatranscriptomic characterization of coronavirus disease 2019 identified a host transcriptional classifier associated with immune signaling. Clin Infect Dis 73(3):376–385. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa663
Zhang J, Wu H, Yao X, Zhang D, Zhou Y, Fu B, Wang W, Li H, Wang Z, Hu Z, Ren Y, Sun R, Tian Z, Bian X, Wei H (2021a) Pyroptotic macrophages stimulate the SARS-CoV-2-associated cytokine storm. Cell Mol Immunol 18(5):1305–1307. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-021-00665-0
Zhang Y, Lu Z, Wang B, Cang J, Ma Y (2020) Gastrointestinal tract symptoms in coronavirus disease 2019: analysis of clinical symptoms in adult patients. medRxiv:2020.2003.2023.20040279. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.23.20040279
Zhong H, Wang Y, Shi Z, Zhang L, Ren H, He W, Zhang Z, Zhu A, Zhao J, Xiao F, Yang F, Liang T, Ye F, Zhong B, Ruan S, Gan M, Zhu J, Li F, Li F, Wang D, Li J, Ren P, Zhu S, Yang H, Wang J, Kristiansen K, Tun HM, Chen W, Zhong N, Xu X, Li Y-m, Li J, Zhao J (2021) Characterization of respiratory microbial dysbiosis in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Cell Discov 7(1):23. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41421-021-00257-2
Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Si HR, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang CL, Chen HD, Chen J, Luo Y, Guo H, Jiang RD, Liu MQ, Chen Y, Shen XR, Wang X, Zheng XS, Zhao K, Chen QJ, Deng F, Liu LL, Yan B, Zhan FX, Wang YY, Xiao GF, Shi ZL (2020) A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 579(7798):270–273. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7
Zuo T, Liu Q, Zhang F, Lui GC, Tso EY, Yeoh YK, Chen Z, Boon SS, Chan FK, Chan PK, Ng SC (2021) Depicting SARS-CoV-2 faecal viral activity in association with gut microbiota composition in patients with COVID-19. Gut 70(2):276–284. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2020-322294
Zuo T, Zhan H, Zhang F, Liu Q, Tso EYK, Lui GCY, Chen N, Li A, Lu W, Chan FKL, Chan PKS, Ng SC (2020b) Alterations in fecal fungal microbiome of patients with COVID-19 during time of hospitalization until discharge. Gastroenterol 159(4):1302–1310.e1305. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.06.048
Zuo T, Zhang F, Lui GCY, Yeoh YK, Li AYL, Zhan H, Wan Y, Chung ACK, Cheung CP, Chen N, Lai CKC, Chen Z, Tso EYK, Fung KSC, Chan V, Ling L, Joynt G, Hui DSC, Chan FKL, Chan PKS, Ng SC (2020a) Alterations in gut microbiota of patients with COVID-19 during time of hospitalization. Gastroenterol 159(3):944–955.e948. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.048
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nandi, S., Ahmed, S., Saxena, A., Saxena, A.K. (2023). Exploring the Pathoprofiles of SARS-COV-2 Infected Human Gut–Lungs Microbiome Crosstalks. In: Kothari, V., Kumar, P., Ray, S. (eds) Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics, and Postbiotics. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1463-0_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1463-0_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-99-1462-3
Online ISBN: 978-981-99-1463-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)