Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology of Hepatitis E

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Hepatitis E Virus

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 1417))

Abstract

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is globally prevalent with relatively high percentages of anti-HEV immunoglobulin G-positive individuals in the populations of developing and developed countries. There are two distinct epidemiological patterns of hepatitis E. In areas with high disease endemicity, primarily developing countries in Asia and Africa, this disease is caused mainly by genotypes HEV-1 or HEV-2; both genotypes transmit predominantly through contaminated water and occur as either outbreaks or sporadic cases of acute hepatitis. The acute hepatitis has the highest attack rate in young adults and is particularly severe among pregnant women. In developed countries, sporadic cases of locally acquired HEV-3 or HEV-4 infection are observed. The reservoir of HEV-3 and HEV-4 is believed to be animals, such as pigs, with zoonotic transmission to humans. The affected persons are often elderly, and persistent infection has been well documented among immunosuppressed persons. A subunit vaccine has been shown to be effective in preventing clinical disease and has been licensed in China.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

ELISA:

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

HAV:

Hepatitis A Virus

HEV:

Hepatitis E Virus

IgG:

Immunoglobulin (Ig) G

References

  1. WHO. http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-e

  2. Aggarwal R (2013) Hepatitis E: epidemiology and natural history. J Clin Exp Hepatol 3(2):125–133

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Raji YE, Toung OP, Taib NM, Sekawi ZB (2022) Hepatitis E virus: an emerging enigmatic and underestimated pathogen. Saudi J Biol Sci 29(1):499–512

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Marano G, Vaglio S, Pupella S, Facco G, Bianchi M, Calizzani G et al (2015) Hepatitis E: an old infection with new implications. Blood Transfus 13(1):6–17

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Takahashi M, Tamura K, Hoshino Y, Nagashima S, Yazaki Y, Mizuo H et al (2010) A nationwide survey of hepatitis E virus infection in the general population of Japan. J Med Virol 82(2):271–281

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Lapa D, Capobianchi MR, Garbuglia AR (2015) Epidemiology of hepatitis E virus in European countries. Int J Mol Sci 16(10):25711–25743

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Echevarría JM (2014) Light and darkness: prevalence of hepatitis E virus infection among the general population. Scientifica (Cairo) 2014:481016

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Li P, Liu J, Li Y, Su J, Ma Z, Bramer WM et al (2020) The global epidemiology of hepatitis E virus infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Int 40(7):1516–1528

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Caron M, Kazanji M (2008) Hepatitis E virus is highly prevalent among pregnant women in Gabon, central Africa, with different patterns between rural and urban areas. Virol J 5:158

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Azman AS, Paul KK, Bhuiyan TR, Koyuncu A, Salje H, Qadri F et al (2021) Hepatitis E in Bangladesh: insights from a national serosurvey. J Infect Dis 224(12 suppl 2):S805–s812

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Kadri SM, Rehman SU, Rehana K, Benetou DR, Ahmad DF, Abdullah A et al (2018) Hepatitis A and E outbreak surveillance during 2015-2017 in Kashmir, India: is the water to blame? J Epidemiol Glob Health 8(3–4):203–207

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Abebe M, Ali I, Ayele S, Overbo J, Aseffa A, Mihret A (2017) Seroprevalence and risk factors of Hepatitis E Virus infection among pregnant women in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PLoS One 12(6):e0180078

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Dagnew M, Belachew A, Tiruneh M, Moges F (2019) Hepatitis E virus infection among pregnant women in Africa: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis 19(1):519

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Adjei AA, Tettey Y, Aviyase JT, Adu-Gyamfi C, Obed S, Mingle JA et al (2009) Hepatitis E virus infection is highly prevalent among pregnant women in Accra, Ghana. Virol J 6:108

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Meldal BH, Sarkodie F, Owusu-Ofori S, Allain JP (2013) Hepatitis E virus infection in Ghanaian blood donors - the importance of immunoassay selection and confirmation. Vox Sang 104(1):30–36

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Richard-Lenoble D, Traore O, Kombila M, Roingeard P, Dubois F, Goudeau A (1995) Hepatitis B, C, D, and E markers in rural equatorial African villages (Gabon). Am J Trop Med Hyg 53(4):338–341

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Khuroo MS (2021) Hepatitis E and pregnancy: an unholy alliance unmasked from Kashmir, India. Viruses 13(7):1329

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Gu G, Huang H, Zhang L, Bi Y, Hu Y, Zhou YH (2015) Hepatitis E virus seroprevalence in pregnant women in Jiangsu, China, and postpartum evolution during six years. BMC Infect Dis 15:560

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Cong W, Sui JC, Zhang XY, Qian AD, Chen J, Zhu XQ (2015) Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus among pregnant women and control subjects in China. J Med Virol 87(3):446–450

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Ma XX, Ji Y, Jin L, Baloch Z, Zhang DR, Wang Y et al (2021) Prevalence and clinical features of hepatitis E virus infection in pregnant women: a large cohort study in Inner Mongolia, China. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 45(4):101536

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. De Schryver A, De Schrijver K, François G, Hambach R, van Sprundel M, Tabibi R et al (2015) Hepatitis E virus infection: an emerging occupational risk? Occup Med (Lond) 65(8):667–672

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Mrzljak A, Balen I, Barbic L, Ilic M, Vilibic-Cavlek T (2021) Hepatitis E virus in professionally exposed: a reason for concern? World J Hepatol 13(7):723–730

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Alvarado-Esquivel C, Sanchez-Anguiano LF, Hernandez-Tinoco J (2014) Seroepidemiology of hepatitis e virus infection in general population in rural Durango, Mexico. Hepat Mon 14(6):e16876

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. van Gageldonk-Lafeber AB, van der Hoek W, Borlée F, Heederik DJ, Mooi SH, Maassen CB et al (2017) Hepatitis E virus seroprevalence among the general population in a livestock-dense area in the Netherlands: a cross-sectional population-based serological survey. BMC Infect Dis 17(1):21

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Mahrt H, Schemmerer M, Behrens G, Leitzmann M, Jilg W, Wenzel JJ (2018) Continuous decline of hepatitis E virus seroprevalence in southern Germany despite increasing notifications, 2003-2015. Emerg Microbes Infect 7(1):133

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Nouhin J, Madec Y, Prak S, Ork M, Kerleguer A, Froehlich Y et al (2018) Declining hepatitis E virus antibody prevalence in Phnom Penh, Cambodia during 1996-2017. Epidemiol Infect 147:e26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. O’Keefe J, Tracy L, Yuen L, Bonanzinga S, Li X, Chong B et al (2021) Autochthonous and travel acquired hepatitis E virus in Australia. Front Microbiol 12:640325

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Purdy MA, Drexler JF, Meng XJ, Meng XJ, Norder H, Okamoto H, Van der Poel WHM et al (2022) ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Hepeviridae 2022. J Gen Virol 103(9). https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.001778

  29. Smith DB, Izopet J, Nicot F, Simmonds P, Jameel S, Meng XJ et al (2020) Update: proposed reference sequences for subtypes of hepatitis E virus (species Orthohepevirus A). J Gen Virol 101(7):692–698

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Lee GH, Tan BH, Teo EC, Lim SG, Dan YY, Wee A et al (2016) Chronic infection with camelid hepatitis E virus in a liver transplant recipient who regularly consumes camel meat and milk. Gastroenterology 150(2):355–357.e353

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Aggarwal R, Goel A (2021) Hepatitis E: current status in India. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 18(3):168–172

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Gupta N, Sarangi AN, Dadhich S, Dixit VK, Chetri K, Goel A et al (2018) Acute hepatitis E in India appears to be caused exclusively by genotype 1 hepatitis E virus. Indian J Gastroenterol 37(1):44–49

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Begum N, Polipalli SK, Husain SA, Kar P (2010) Molecular analysis of swine hepatitis E virus from north India. Indian J Med Res 132(5):504–508

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Liu P, Li L, Wang L, Bu Q, Fu H, Han J et al (2012) Phylogenetic analysis of 626 hepatitis E virus (HEV) isolates from humans and animals in China (1986-2011) showing genotype diversity and zoonotic transmission. Infect Genet Evol 12(2):428–434

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Kanayama A, Arima Y, Yamagishi T, Kinoshita H, Sunagawa T, Yahata Y et al (2015) Epidemiology of domestically acquired hepatitis E virus infection in Japan: assessment of the nationally reported surveillance data, 2007-2013. J Med Microbiol 64(7):752–758

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Jeong SH (2011) Current status of hepatitis E virus infection in Korea. Gut Liver 5(4):427–431

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Tan LT, Tan J, Ang LW, Chan KP, Chiew KT, Cutter J et al (2013) Epidemiology of acute hepatitis E in Singapore. J Infect 66(5):453–459

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Albetkova A, Drobeniuc J, Yashina T, Musabaev E, Robertson B, Nainan O et al (2007) Characterization of hepatitis E virus from outbreak and sporadic cases in Turkmenistan. J Med Virol 79(11):1696–1702

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Lu L, Drobeniuc J, Kobylnikov N, Usmanov RK, Robertson BH, Favorov MO et al (2004) Complete sequence of a Kyrgyzstan swine hepatitis E virus (HEV) isolated from a piglet thought to be experimentally infected with human HEV. J Med Virol 74(4):556–562

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Escribà JM, Nakoune E, Recio C, Massamba PM, Matsika-Claquin MD, Goumba C et al (2008) Hepatitis E, Central African Republic. Emerg Infect Dis 14(4):681–683

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Elduma AH, Zein MM, Karlsson M, Elkhidir IM, Norder H (2016) A single lineage of hepatitis E virus causes both outbreaks and sporadic hepatitis in Sudan. Viruses 8(10):273

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Nicand E, Armstrong GL, Enouf V, Guthmann JP, Guerin JP, Caron M et al (2005) Genetic heterogeneity of hepatitis E virus in Darfur, Sudan, and neighboring Chad. J Med Virol 77(4):519–521

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. van Cuyck H, Juge F, Roques P (2003) Phylogenetic analysis of the first complete hepatitis E virus (HEV) genome from Africa. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 39(2):133–139

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Blackard JT, Rouster SD, Nady S, Galal G, Marzuuk N, Rafaat MM et al (2009) Genotypic characterization of symptomatic hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in Egypt. J Clin Virol 46(2):140–144

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Delarocque-Astagneau E, Abravanel F, Moshen A, Le Fouler L, Gad RR, El-Daly M et al (2012) Epidemiological and virological characteristics of symptomatic acute hepatitis E in Greater Cairo, Egypt. Clin Microbiol Infect 18(10):982–988

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. He J, Binn LN, Tsarev SA, Hayes CG, Frean JA, Isaacson M et al (2000) Molecular characterization of a hepatitis E virus isolate from Namibia. J Biomed Sci 7(4):334–338

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Buisson Y, Grandadam M, Nicand E, Cheval P, van Cuyck-Gandre H, Innis B et al (2000) Identification of a novel hepatitis E virus in Nigeria. J Gen Virol 81(pt 4):903–909

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Wang B, Akanbi OA, Harms D, Adesina O, Osundare FA, Naidoo D et al (2018) A new hepatitis E virus genotype 2 strain identified from an outbreak in Nigeria, 2017. Virol J 15(1):163

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Maila HT, Bowyer SM, Swanepoel R (2004) Identification of a new strain of hepatitis E virus from an outbreak in Namibia in 1995. J Gen Virol 85(pt 1):89–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Kamel AH, Ali MA, El-Nady HG, Deraz A, Aho S, Pothier P et al (2011) Presence of enteric hepatitis viruses in the sewage and population of Greater Cairo. Clin Microbiol Infect 17(8):1182–1185

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Epelboin L, Nicand E, Roussin C, Lernout T, Pettinelli ME, Tesse S et al (2011) A sporadic case of genotype 3f acute hepatitis E in Mayotte. Med Mal Infect 41(7):392–394

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Modiyinji AF, Bigna JJ, Kenmoe S, Simo FBN, Amougou MA, Ndangang MS et al (2021) Epidemiology of hepatitis E virus infection in animals in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Vet Res 17(1):50

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Rasche A, Saqib M, Liljander AM, Bornstein S, Zohaib A, Renneker S et al (2016) Hepatitis E virus infection in Dromedaries, North and East Africa, United Arab Emirates, and Pakistan, 1983-2015. Emerg Infect Dis 22(7):1249–1252

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. El-Mokhtar MA, Elkhawaga AA, Sayed IM (2020) Assessment of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in the edible goat products pointed out a risk for human infection in Upper Egypt. Int J Food Microbiol 330:108784

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Sayed IM, Elkhawaga AA, El-Mokhtar MA (2020) Circulation of hepatitis E virus (HEV) and/or HEV-like agent in non-mixed dairy farms could represent a potential source of infection for Egyptian people. Int J Food Microbiol 317:108479

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Kwo PY, Schlauder GG, Carpenter HA, Murphy PJ, Rosenblatt JE, Dawson GJ et al (1997) Acute hepatitis E by a new isolate acquired in the United States. Mayo Clin Proc 72(12):1133–1136

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Schlauder GG, Dawson GJ, Erker JC, Kwo PY, Knigge MF, Smalley DL et al (1998) The sequence and phylogenetic analysis of a novel hepatitis E virus isolated from a patient with acute hepatitis reported in the United States. J Gen Virol 79(Pt 3):447–456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Drobeniuc J, Greene-Montfort T, Le NT, Mixson-Hayden TR, Ganova-Raeva L, Dong C et al (2013) Laboratory-based surveillance for hepatitis E virus infection, United States, 2005-2012. Emerg Infect Dis 19(2):218–222; quiz 353

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Tohme RA, Drobeniuc J, Sanchez R, Heseltine G, Alsip B, Kamili S et al (2011) Acute hepatitis associated with autochthonous hepatitis E virus infection--San Antonio, Texas, 2009. Clin Infect Dis 53(8):793–796

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Wilhelm B, Muellner P, Pearl DL, Rajić A, Houde A, McEwen SA (2015) Preliminary molecular epidemiological investigation of hepatitis E virus sequences from Québec, Canada. Prev Vet Med 118(4):359–369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Delage G, Fearon M, Gregoire Y, Hogema BM, Custer B, Scalia V et al (2019) Hepatitis E virus infection in blood donors and risk to patients in the United States and Canada. Transfus Med Rev 33(3):139–145

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Pisano MB, Mirazo S, Re VE (2020) Hepatitis E virus infection: is it really a problem in Latin America? Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 16(3):108–113

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Villalba Mde L, Lay Lde L, Chandra V, Corredor MB, Frometa SS, Moreno AG et al (2008) Hepatitis E virus genotype 1, Cuba. Emerg Infect Dis 14(8):1320–1322

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. García CG, Sánchez D, Villalba MC, Pujol FH, de Los Ángeles Rodríguez Lay L, Pinto B et al (2012) Molecular characterization of hepatitis E virus in patients with acute hepatitis in Venezuela. J Med Virol 84(7):1025–1029

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Mirazo S, Mainardi V, Ramos N, Gerona S, Rocca A, Arbiza J (2014) Indigenous hepatitis E virus genotype 1 infection, Uruguay. Emerg Infect Dis 20(1):171–173

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Wichmann O, Schimanski S, Koch J, Kohler M, Rothe C, Plentz A et al (2008) Phylogenetic and case-control study on hepatitis E virus infection in Germany. J Infect Dis 198(12):1732–1741

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Hakze-van der Honing RW, van Coillie E, Antonis AF, van der Poel WH (2011) First isolation of hepatitis E virus genotype 4 in Europe through swine surveillance in the Netherlands and Belgium. PloS One 6(8):e22673

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Tessé S, Lioure B, Fornecker L, Wendling MJ, Stoll-Keller F, Bigaillon C et al (2012) Circulation of genotype 4 hepatitis E virus in Europe: first autochthonous hepatitis E infection in France. J Clin Virol 54(2):197–200

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Colson P, Romanet P, Moal V, Borentain P, Purgus R, Benezech A et al (2012) Autochthonous infections with hepatitis E virus genotype 4, France. Emerg Infect Dis 18(8):1361–1364

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Jeblaoui A, Haim-Boukobza S, Marchadier E, Mokhtari C, Roque-Afonso AM (2013) Genotype 4 hepatitis e virus in France: an autochthonous infection with a more severe presentation. Clin Infect Dis 57(4):e122–e126

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Garbuglia AR, Scognamiglio P, Petrosillo N, Mastroianni CM, Sordillo P, Gentile D et al (2013) Hepatitis E virus genotype 4 outbreak, Italy, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 19(1):110–114

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Bouamra Y, Gérolami R, Arzouni JP, Grimaud JC, Lafforgue P, Nelli M et al (2014) Emergence of autochthonous infections with hepatitis E virus of genotype 4 in Europe. Intervirology 57(1):43–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Shrestha AC, Faddy HM, Flower RL, Seed CR, Keller AJ (2015) Hepatitis E virus: do locally acquired infections in Australia necessitate laboratory testing in acute hepatitis patients with no overseas travel history? Pathology 47(2):97–100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Dalton HR, Fellows HJ, Gane EJ, Wong P, Gerred S, Schroeder B et al (2007) Hepatitis E in New Zealand. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 22(8):1236–1240

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Yugo DM, Meng XJ (2013) Hepatitis E virus: foodborne, waterborne and zoonotic transmission. Int J Environ Res Public Health 10(10):4507–4533

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Pérez-Gracia MT, García M, Suay B, Mateos-Lindemann ML (2015) Current knowledge on hepatitis E. J Clin Transl Hepatol 3(2):117–126

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Ippagunta SK, Naik S, Sharma B, Aggarwal R (2007) Presence of hepatitis E virus in sewage in Northern India: frequency and seasonal pattern. J Med Virol 79(12):1827–1831

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Aggarwal R, Kamili S, Spelbring J, Krawczynski K (2001) Experimental studies on subclinical hepatitis E virus infection in cynomolgus macaques. J Infect Dis 184(11):1380–1385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Han J, Lei Y, Liu L, Liu P, Xia J, Zhang Y et al (2014) SPF rabbits infected with rabbit hepatitis E virus isolate experimentally showing the chronicity of hepatitis. PloS One 9(6):e99861

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Viswanathan R, Sidhu AS (1957) Infectious hepatitis; clinical findings. Indian J Med Res 45(suppl):49–58

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Khuroo MS (1980) Study of an epidemic of non-A, non-B hepatitis. Possibility of another human hepatitis virus distinct from post-transfusion non-A, non-B type. Am J Med 68(6):818–824

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Velázquez O, Stetler HC, Avila C, Ornelas G, Alvarez C, Hadler SC et al (1990) Epidemic transmission of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis in Mexico, 1986-1987. JAMA 263(24):3281–3285

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Tsega E, Krawczynski K, Hansson BG, Nordenfelt E, Negusse Y, Alemu W et al (1991) Outbreak of acute hepatitis E virus infection among military personnel in northern Ethiopia. J Med Virol 34(4):232–236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Naik SR, Aggarwal R, Salunke PN, Mehrotra NN (1992) A large waterborne viral hepatitis E epidemic in Kanpur, India. Bull World Health Organ 70(5):597–604

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Song DY, Zhuang H, Li Z (1992) Hepatitis E in Hetian city. Analysis of 562 cases. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 31(5):275–277, 316

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Corwin AL, Khiem HB, Clayson ET, Pham KS, Vo TT, Vu TY et al (1996) A waterborne outbreak of hepatitis E virus transmission in southwestern Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54(6):559–562

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Rab MA, Bile MK, Mubarik MM, Asghar H, Sami Z, Siddiqi S et al (1997) Water-borne hepatitis E virus epidemic in Islamabad, Pakistan: a common source outbreak traced to the malfunction of a modern water treatment plant. Am J Trop Med Hyg 57(2):151–157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Clayson ET, Vaughn DW, Innis BL, Shrestha MP, Pandey R, Malla DB (1998) Association of hepatitis E virus with an outbreak of hepatitis at a military training camp in Nepal. J Med Virol 54(3):178–182

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Guthmann JP, Klovstad H, Boccia D, Hamid N, Pinoges L, Nizou JY et al (2006) A large outbreak of hepatitis E among a displaced population in Darfur, Sudan, 2004: the role of water treatment methods. Clin Infect Dis 42(12):1685–1691

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Teshale EH, Howard CM, Grytdal SP, Handzel TR, Barry V, Kamili S et al (2010) Hepatitis E epidemic, Uganda. Emerg Infect Dis 16(1):126–129

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Amanya G, Kizito S, Nabukenya I, Kalyango J, Atuheire C, Nansumba H et al (2017) Risk factors, person, place and time characteristics associated with Hepatitis E Virus outbreak in Napak District, Uganda. BMC Infect Dis 17(1):451

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Browne LB, Menkir Z, Kahi V, Maina G, Asnakew S, Tubman M et al (2015) Notes from the field: hepatitis E outbreak among refugees from South Sudan - Gambella, Ethiopia, April 2014-January 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 64(19):537

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Basnyat B, Dalton HR, Kamar N, Rein DB, Labrique A, Farrar J et al (2015) Nepali earthquakes and the risk of an epidemic of hepatitis E. Lancet 385(9987):2572–2573

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Lagare A, Ibrahim A, Ousmane S, Issaka B, Zaneidou M, Kadadé G et al (2018) Outbreak of hepatitis E virus infection in displaced persons camps in Diffa Region, Niger, 2017. Am J Trop Med Hyg 99(4):1055–1057

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Pallerla SR, Harms D, Johne R, Todt D, Steinmann E, Schemmerer M et al (2020) Hepatitis E virus infection: circulation, molecular epidemiology, and impact on global health. Pathogens 9(10):856

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Heemelaar S, Hangula AL, Chipeio ML, Josef M, Stekelenburg J, van den Akker TH et al (2022) Maternal and fetal outcomes of pregnancies complicated by acute hepatitis E and the impact of HIV status: a cross-sectional study in Namibia. Liver Int 42(1):50–58

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Desai AN, Mohareb AM, Elkarsany MM, Desalegn H, Madoff LC, Lassmann B (2022) Viral hepatitis E outbreaks in refugees and internally displaced populations, sub-Saharan Africa, 2010-2020. Emerg Infect Dis 28(5):1074–1076

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Baki AA, Haque W, Giti S, Khan AA, Rahman MM, Jubaida N et al (2021) Hepatitis E virus genotype 1f outbreak in Bangladesh, 2018. J Med Virol 93(8):5177–5181

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Mehta N, Gupta M, Mishra M, Singh SK (2021) Hepatitis E genotype 1 outbreak in Jharkhand, India: a descriptive analysis. Infect Disord Drug Targets 21(1):99–104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Tripathy AS, Sharma M, Thorat NC, Jadhav S, Koshatwar KA (2021) An outbreak of hepatitis E in Yavatmal, India, 2019. J Med Virol 93(6):3761–3768

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Salman M, Ul Mustafa Z, Asif N (2019) Hepatitis E outbreak in the province of Punjab, Pakistan: a call for action. Infect Dis (Lond) 51(8):633–634

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Kumar T, Shrivastava A, Kumar A, Laserson KF, Narain JP, Venkatesh S et al (2015) Viral hepatitis surveillance--India, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 64(28):758–762

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  103. Teo CG (2012) Fatal outbreaks of jaundice in pregnancy and the epidemic history of hepatitis E. Epidemiol Infect 140(5):767–787

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Kim JH, Nelson KE, Panzner U, Kasture Y, Labrique AB, Wierzba TF (2014) A systematic review of the epidemiology of hepatitis E virus in Africa. BMC Infect Dis 14:308

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  105. Khuroo MS (2011) Discovery of hepatitis E: the epidemic non-A, non-B hepatitis 30 years down the memory lane. Virus Res 161(1):3–14

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Gurley ES, Hossain MJ, Paul RC, Sazzad HM, Islam MS, Parveen S et al (2014) Outbreak of hepatitis E in urban Bangladesh resulting in maternal and perinatal mortality. Clin Infect Dis 59(5):658–665

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Siddiqui AR, Jooma RA, Smego RA Jr (2005) Nosocomial outbreak of hepatitis E infection in Pakistan with possible parenteral transmission. Clin Infect Dis 40(6):908–909

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Mushahwar IK (2008) Hepatitis E virus: molecular virology, clinical features, diagnosis, transmission, epidemiology, and prevention. J Med Virol 80(4):646–658

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Patra S, Kumar A, Trivedi SS, Puri M, Sarin SK (2007) Maternal and fetal outcomes in pregnant women with acute hepatitis E virus infection. Ann Intern Med 147(1):28–33

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Arankalle VA, Chobe LP, Jha J, Chadha MS, Banerjee K, Favorov MO et al (1993) Aetiology of acute sporadic non-A, non-B viral hepatitis in India. J Med Virol 40(2):121–125

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Said B, Ijaz S, Kafatos G, Booth L, Thomas HL, Walsh A et al (2009) Hepatitis E outbreak on cruise ship. Emerg Infect Dis 15(11):1738–1744

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  112. Zhang L, Yan B, Xu A (2016) A hepatitis E outbreak by genotype 4 virus in Shandong province, China. Vaccine 34(33):3715–3718

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Yapa CM, Furlong C, Rosewell A, Ward KA, Adamson S, Shadbolt C et al (2016) First reported outbreak of locally acquired hepatitis E virus infection in Australia. Med J Aust 204(7):274

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Guillois Y, Abravanel F, Miura T, Pavio N, Vaillant V, Lhomme S et al (2016) High proportion of asymptomatic infections in an outbreak of hepatitis E associated with a spit-roasted piglet, France, 2013. Clin Infect Dis 62(3):351–357

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Rivero-Juarez A, Frias M, Martinez-Peinado A, Risalde MA, Rodriguez-Cano D, Camacho A et al (2017) Familial hepatitis E outbreak linked to wild boar meat consumption. Zoonoses Public Health 64(7):561–565

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Ishida S, Matsuura K, Yoshizumi S, Miyoshi M, Sugisawa T, Tanida M et al (2018) Hepatitis E outbreak at a nursing home for aged people in Hokkaido, Japan, between February and March 2016. J Clin Virol 101:23–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Yin W, Han Y, Xin H, Liu W, Song Q, Li Z et al (2019) Hepatitis E outbreak in a mechanical factory in Qingdao City, China. Int J Infect Dis 86:191–196

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Garbuglia AR, Bruni R, Villano U, Vairo F, Lapa D, Madonna E et al (2021) Hepatitis E outbreak in the central part of Italy sustained by multiple HEV genotype 3 strains, June-December 2019. Viruses 13(6):1159

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. Zhu FC, Zhang J, Zhang XF, Zhou C, Wang ZZ, Huang SJ et al (2010) Efficacy and safety of a recombinant hepatitis E vaccine in healthy adults: a large-scale, randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 376(9744):895–902

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Wedemeyer H, Pischke S, Manns MP (2012) Pathogenesis and treatment of hepatitis e virus infection. Gastroenterology 142(6):1388–1397

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Kamar N, Izopet J, Pavio N, Aggarwal R, Labrique A, Wedemeyer H et al (2017) Hepatitis E virus infection. Nat Rev Dis Primers 3:17086

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Pischke S, Heim A, Bremer B, Raupach R, Horn-Wichmann R, Ganzenmueller T et al (2011) Hepatitis E: an emerging infectious disease in Germany? Z Gastroenterol 49(9):1255–1257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Geng Y, Zhao C, Fan J, Harrison TJ, Zhang H, Lian H et al (2013) Genotype analysis of hepatitis E virus from sporadic hepatitis E cases in northern China. Infect Genet Evol 20:413–417

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Shrestha MP, Scott RM, Joshi DM, Mammen MP Jr, Thapa GB, Thapa N et al (2007) Safety and efficacy of a recombinant hepatitis E vaccine. N Engl J Med 356(9):895–903

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Zhang J, Liu CB, Li RC, Li YM, Zheng YJ, Li YP et al (2009) Randomized-controlled phase II clinical trial of a bacterially expressed recombinant hepatitis E vaccine. Vaccine 27(12):1869–1874

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Zhang J, Shih JW, Xia NS (2015) Long-term efficacy of a hepatitis E vaccine. N Engl J Med 372(23):2265–2266

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Li Y, Huang X, Zhang Z, Li S, Zhang J, Xia N et al (2020) Prophylactic hepatitis E vaccines: antigenic analysis and serological evaluation. Viruses 12(1):109

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Key Laboratory of Public Health Safety of Hebei Province, School of Public Health, Hebei University, Baoding, China

    Yansheng Geng & Tengfei Shi

  2. Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, China

    Youchun Wang

Authors
  1. Yansheng Geng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tengfei Shi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Youchun Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Youchun Wang .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, China

    Youchun Wang

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Geng, Y., Shi, T., Wang, Y. (2023). Epidemiology of Hepatitis E. In: Wang, Y. (eds) Hepatitis E Virus. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 1417. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1304-6_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation