Charging of New Energy Vehicles

Abstract

Charging infrastructure is a great assurance for BEV users towards green travel and an important pillar to boost the development of the industry of new energy vehicles, the construction of new electric power system, and the achievement of “dual-carbon” goals. On January 10, 2022, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), the National Energy Administration (NEA) and other departments jointly issued the Implementation Opinions of the National Development and Reform Commission and Other Departments on Further Enhancing the Service Guarantee of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure (F.G.N.Y.G. [2022] No. 53) (hereinafter referred to as the “Implementation Opinions”), which specified the target plans and guidelines for the establishment of charging infrastructure system featuring moderate advance of time, balanced in layout, and intelligent and efficient for the “14^th Five-Year Plan” period.

Charging infrastructure is a great assurance for BEV users towards green travel and an important pillar to boost the development of the industry of new energy vehicles, the construction of new electric power system, and the achievement of “dual-carbon” goals. On January 10, 2022, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), the National Energy Administration (NEA) and other departments jointly issued the Implementation Opinions of the National Development and Reform Commission and Other Departments on Further Enhancing the Service Guarantee of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure (F.G.N.Y.G. [2022] No. 53) (hereinafter referred to as the “Implementation Opinions”), which specified the target plans and guidelines for the establishment of charging infrastructure system featuring moderate advance of time, balanced in layout, and intelligent and efficient for the “14th Five-Year Plan” period. This Section analyzes the charging characteristics of vehicles in different application scenarios, charging behaviors in different cases, and operation characteristics under battery swapping mode to summarize the charging rules of BEV users, thus providing reference for the further improvement of the charging infrastructure in planning and distribution in China.

5.1 Construction Situation of Charging Infrastructures

5.1.1 Industry Policies for Charging Infrastructure

Public charging piles are growing towards DC and high-power transition with optimized top-level design and detailed targets with policy.

On February 3, 2023, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) and other seven departments issued the Notice on the Organization of the Pilot Work of the Pilot Zone for the Full Electrification of Vehicles in Public Sector (G.X.B.L.T.Z.H. [2023] No.23) (hereinafter referred to as “Notice”), which highlighted the goal to increase the proportion of NEVs in the new and renewed vehicles in the pilot areas to 80% and strive to achieve a ratio between the number of standard piles in the public sector and that of NEVs promoted (standard vehicles) in the public sector to 1:1. Such initiatives are conducive to the construction of DC charging piles in the public sector in the pursuit of full DC operation for new charging piles. The Notice adjusts the conversion of charging piles above 180 kW by a factor of 1.1 to encourage the development of charging piles towards a higher power.

Under the support of local subsidy policies with the amount of subsidy close to the cost of equipment, the establishment of charging facilities are stepping up in the public sector. Subsidies for charging facilities are mainly granted in two forms, namely one-time construction subsidy and operation subsidy per kWh. According to the local subsidy policy (Table 5.1), the one-time subsidy is usually RMB200/kW-RMB300/kW for AC piles and RMB300/kW-RMB500/kW for DC piles or 30% of the total investment cost; the subsidy per kWh usually starts from RMB0.1/kWh and is then adjusted based on the regional economic performance and other factors. Given the equipment price of RMB300/kW for AC piles and about RMB500/kW for DC piles, the current subsidy is relatively high, which can basically cover the cost of equipment purchase. In particular, as the power of charging piles increases, the cost per kW would be diluted. Therefore, the subsidy per kWh may boost the building of high-power fast charging piles. As encouraged by policies and driven by current demands, the construction of high-power charging piles will speed up.

Table 5.1 Subsidy policies for charging facilities in some cities or regions in China in 2022

5.1.2 Progress in Charging Infrastructure Construction

The construction scale of charging facilities continued rapid growth thanks to the accelerating vehicle electrification.

China’s NEV market has been expanding in full swing. The rapid growth of marker demands of NEVs resulted in the constant release of users’ charging demands and high-rate increase of the holding volume of charging infrastructure in China. According to the statistics of China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (hereinafter referred to as “EVCIPA”) (Fig. 5.1), by the end of 2022, the number of charging infrastructure in China reached 5.209 million. Stimulated by the NEV market, the market demand for charging piles also kept growing swiftly.

Fig. 5.1

Source Annual Report on Charging Infrastructure of Electric Vehicles in China from 2021 to 2022 EVCIPA

Holding volume of charging infrastructures in China over the years. Remark Data of charging infrastructure was properly rectified by the ECVIPA.

In the field of battery swapping infrastructure, by the end of 2022, a total of 1,973 battery swapping stations have been built across China, of which 289 stations were established in Beijing, accounting for 14.6% of national total, ranking first in China.

The number of newly-built charging infrastructure in China maintained a rapid growth trend over the years.

In 2022, a total of 2.451 million new charging infrastructures (public charging piles + private charging piles) were built within China, with a YOY increase of 142.7% (Fig. 5.2). With the rapid growth of NEV sales, the number of new private charging piles also increased significantly. In 2022, a total of 1.942 million private charging piles were built over China, an increase of 2.3 times year-on-year. According to the statistics of the ECVIPA, the major causes that affected the installation of private charging piles were the lack of fixed parking spaces, less support by property companies, and insufficient power capacity. Since an increasing number of users prefer electric vehicles, it requires great concerned and support for the successful installation of private charging piles.

Fig. 5.2

Source Annual Report on Charging Infrastructure of Electric Vehicles in China from 2021 to 2022—EVCIPA

Increment of charging infrastructures in China over the years.

Vehicle-to-pile ratio in China was optimized constantly.

China’s vehicle-to-pile ratio constantly decreased from 4.43:1 in 2016 to 2.51:1 in 2022 (Fig. 5.3). According to the changes in vehicle-to-pile incremental ratio over the years, China’s vehicle-to-pile incremental ratio read 3.34:1 in 2016, ranged from 2 to 3 between 2017 and 2022, and reached 2.89 in 2021, close to the holding ratio of piles.

Fig. 5.3

Source Annual Report on Charging Infrastructure of Electric Vehicles in China from 2021 to 2022—EVCIPA

Changes of vehicle-to-pile ratio in China’s charging infrastructure over the years.

5.1.3 Progress in Charging Technology

The charging technology continued to improve, and the average charging power of the public DC charging piles increased steadily.

As shown in Fig. 5.4 the average charging power of the public AC charging piles mostly remained stable at about 9 kW since 2016; the charging power of public AC charging piles decreased slightly from 2017. The charging power of public DC charging piles rose sharply. The average power of public DC charging piles exceeded 100 kW after 2019 and reached 123.3 kW in 2022, with a YOY growth of 2.8%.

Fig. 5.4

Source China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (EVCIPA)

Average power change of charging piles in the public sector over the years.

The trend of high power in the field of public charging facilities gradually emerged.

According to the changes in average power of new public DC charging piles over the years (Fig. 5.5), the high-power charging piles with 120 kW and above was proliferating, with a proportion of 24.4%, up 4.7 percentage points over 2017, indicating a momentum towards higher power.

Fig. 5.5

Source China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (EVCIPA)

Average power change of new public DC charging piles over the years in China.

Fast charging pile construction quickened, forming a synergy with private charging piles.

Based on the bidding data of charging facilities along the Electricity Super Highway of the State Grid (Fig. 5.6), in 2021, State Grid organized three public bidding activities for charging and battery facilities, of which 63% were those rated 1000 V and 80 kW. As of October 2022, of the bidding structure of charging and swapping facilities under the State Grid, 60% facilities were rated above 160 kW and another 6% had a power of 240 kW and above.

Fig. 5.6

Source State Grid, CSI

Proportion of bidding structure of charging and swapping facilities of State Grid in 2021 and 2022.

Several brands started deployment with 880v fast charging solutions, showing a trend towards higher voltage.

High-power charging can significantly improve the charging capacity, making it a major orientation in charging infrastructure construction. Although China’s NEV market has been expanding in full swing, the time-consuming vehicle replenishment remains an obstacle in BEV development. In general, BEV passenger cars may take one hour to fill up with 60 kW-80 kW DC public fast charging facilities. Considering the waiting time for piles, the duration for power replenishment further prolongs.

For the purpose of fast charging, Porsche launched the world’s first model Taycan with 800 V high-voltage electrical architecture in 2019, upon which the 800 V fast charging solution gained an increasing popularity by vehicle manufacturers. By the end of 2022, following Porsche, BYD, Xpeng, and other brands also released and sold 800 V high-voltage charging models. BYD Seal, BAIC ArcFox Alpha S HI, Xpeng G9, Avatr 11, and other models were released, with the highest charging power of 480 kW. Other independent brands also launched their own high-voltage fast charging programs. For instance, Li Auto launched 800 V models in 2023, NIO is expected to launch 800 V fast charging battery packs in 2024, and SAIC released its Modular Scalable Platform for high-voltage fast charging. High-voltage and high-power charging becomes a major solution to ease the anxiety of replenishment and promote NEV development.

5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments

Through analysis of vehicles in seven segments, including new energy private cars, BEV e-taxis, BEV taxis, BEV cars for sharing, BEV logistics vehicles, BEV buses, and heavy-duty trucks, this Section analyzes and summarizes the charging characteristics of vehicles at different periods with the average single-time charging characteristics, average daily charging characteristics, and average monthly charging characteristics as focuses (Table 5.2), and draws a conclusion on the vehicle charging laws, with an aim to provide references and support for the improvement of charging facility policies and the reasonable layout of charging facilities by operators. The specific indicators under analysis are as follows:

Table 5.2 Analysis indicators for NEV segments

5.2.1 Charging Characteristics of New Energy Private Cars

• 1. Average single-time charging characteristics of new energy private cars

The average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars concentrated at 2h–5h, and the proportion of new energy private cars with an average single-time charging duration of more than 5h in 2022.

In 2022, the average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars was 3.5 h, 0.2 h shorter than that in 2020 (Table 5.3). The proportion of those with average single-time charging duration of more than 5 h in 2022 increased year on year (Fig. 5.7).

Table 5.3 Average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars over the years

Fig. 5.7

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars—by year

By distribution in weekdays and weekends, the proportion of BEVs and PHEVs with single-trip charging duration within 1 h in weekends was significantly higher than that in weekdays (Figs. 5.8, 5.9).

Fig. 5.8

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV private cars in 2022—by weekday and weekend

Fig. 5.9

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of PHEV private cars in 2022—by weekday and weekend

In terms of the charging mode (Fig. 5.10), the fast charging duration of new energy private cars mainly fell in 1 h, with a proportion of 86.7%; the slow-charging distributions were distributed unevenly, with a proportion of 67.1% for a slow-charging duration in 2 h-6 h.

Fig. 5.10

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

The average single-time charging initial SOC of private cars declined year by year.

According to the data over the years, the average single-time charging initial SOC of new energy private cars in 2022 was 38.1%, with a decrease year by year (Table 5.4). By the distribution (Fig. 5.11), the proportion of new energy private cars with average single-time charging initial SOC in 20%-40% increased over 2020 and 2021.

Table 5.4 Average single-time charging initial SOC of new energy private cars over the years

Fig. 5.11

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of new energy private cars—by year

For both BEVs and PHEVs, the proportion of those with average single-time charging initial SOC in weekends within 10% was higher (Figs. 5.12, 5.13), because users of private cars preferred medium- and long-distance travel in weekends, and NEVs consumed more power, for which the remaining SOC of more vehicles stayed lower.

Fig. 5.12

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV private cars in 2022—by weekday and weekend

Fig. 5.13

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of PHEV private cars in 2022—by weekday and weekend

In terms of charging mode, the remaining SOC of new energy private cars under fast charging mode was mainly between 0 and 10%, and the proportion of the cars in such interval reached 50.3%. Some vehicles also featured a remaining SOC between 20 and 40%. Under the slow-charging mode, the average single-time charging initial SOC of new private cars mainly ranged from 20 to 60%, with a proportion of 77.1% (Fig. 5.14). The slow-charging mode was mainly applied is mainly for daily purpose, namely charging whenever stopped with piles for family use, with the remaining SOC distributed unevenly. Therefore, fast charging is more used for power replenishment when the battery is low, while slow charging is more used for regular replenishment.

Fig. 5.14

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of new energy private cars in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

• 2. Average daily charging characteristics of new energy private cars

New energy private cars mainly charged at the destinations of commuting, with average daily charging time concentrated in the morning rush hours and nighttime, highlighting job-housing characteristics.

In terms of the distribution of charging hours, new energy private cars in 2022 mainly charged in the morning rush hours and at night (Fig. 5.15). 08:00 in the morning was the peak time for charging with a concentration ratio of 6.74%; and 17:00 was another peak time at night. The daily charging peak hours of private cars were characterized by power replenishment at commuting destinations and remarkable charging characteristics at the workplace and residential areas.

Fig. 5.15

Distribution of charging time of new energy private cars

Given the average daily charging characteristics on weekdays and weekends, the proportion of BEV and PHEV private cars charging in the morning peak (07:00–09:00) on weekdays was higher than that on weekends (Figs. 5.16, 5.17). The charging peak occurs along with the morning rush hours in weekdays in light of the charging behaviors of users at the workplaces.

Fig. 5.16

Distribution of charging time of BEV private cars in 2022—by weekday and weeken

Fig. 5.17

Distribution of charging time of PHEV private cars in 2022—by weekday and weekend

From the perspective of charging mode, private cars preferred fast charging mode for power replenishment during the daytime. The proportion of private cars using fast charging mode was higher than those using slow-charging mode from 10:00–17:00, while the proportion of those using slow-charging mode was higher from 08:00 to 18:00. (Fig. 5.18).

Fig. 5.18

Distribution of charging time of new energy private cars in 2021—by fast charging and slow charging

• 3. Average monthly charging characteristics of new energy private cars

New energy private cars charged 6.5 times per month on average in 2022, a slight decrease in frequency from previous years.

New energy private cars charged 6.5 times per month on average in 2022, with a decrease of 26.1% year on year (Table 5.5). From the distribution of average monthly charging frequency (by times) of NEVs, those charging less than 5 times per month on average accounted for 56.7% of the total, up 18 percentage points year-on-year (Fig. 5.19). The average monthly charging frequency of BEVs was mainly less than 5 times, accounting for 59.1% of the total (Fig. 5.20). In 2022, the proportion of PHEV private cars charging less than 5 times per month on average increased by 30.5 and 26.9 percentage points from 2020 and 2021, respectively (Fig. 5.21).

Table 5.5 Average monthly charging times of new energy private cars over the years

Fig. 5.19

Distribution of average monthly charging times of new energy private cars—by year

Fig. 5.20

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV private cars—by year

Fig. 5.21

Distribution of average monthly charging times of PHEV private cars—by year

In terms of changes in vehicle charging methods over the years, the average monthly fast charging times of new energy private vehicles accounted for 20.6% of the average monthly charging times in 2022, with an increase from previous years (Fig. 5.22).

Fig. 5.22

Distribution of average monthly charging times of new energy private cars over the years—by fast charging and slow charging

In 2022, the average monthly fast charging times of new energy private cars read 1.3, basically the same as that in previous years.

After 2020, the average monthly fast charging times for new energy private cars remained basically the same over the years (Table 5.6). In view of the distribution of the proportion of new energy private cars with different fast charging times over the years (Fig. 5.23), most of the cars were charged within 5 times, and such proportion stayed above 80% for years. The changes in the proportion of fast charging times over the years show that the proportion of vehicles charging five times or more per month on average increased from 7.7% in 2020 to 12% in 2022. Possibly due to the fact that the rate of private piles to vehicles lagged behind the rapid growth of the holding volume of NEVs, an increasing number of private car users chose fast charging piles. Meanwhile, along with the rapid growth of the driving range of new energy private cars, more private car users preferred long-distance trips, during which the frequency of fast charging also improved.

Table 5.6 Average monthly fast charging times of new energy private cars over the years

Fig. 5.23

Distribution of average monthly charging times of new energy private cars—by year for fast charging

In 2022, the average monthly slow charging times of new energy private cars read 5, with a decrease from previous years.

Slow charging was still the primary method for new energy private cars. The average monthly slow charging times of new energy private cars read 5 in 2022, with a decrease year on year and throughout 2022 (Table 5.7). From the distribution of times (Fig. 5.24), the proportion of vehicles with an average monthly slow charging time within 5 increased from 45.9% in 2021 to 73.2% in 2022. Due to the rapid growth of the overall driving range of private cars, the average monthly slow charging frequency declined in general.

Table 5.7 Average monthly slow charging times of new energy private cars over the years

Fig. 5.24

Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of new energy private cars—by year

The average monthly charge of new energy private cars in 2022 was 85.4kWh, basically the same as that in 2022 (Table 5.8, Fig. 5.25).

Table 5.8 Average monthly charge of new energy private cars over the years

Fig. 5.25

Distribution of average monthly charge of new energy private cars—by year

5.2.2 Charging Characteristics of BEV e-taxis

• 1. Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV e-taxis

The average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis was 1.6h in 2022, mostly the same as that in 2021.

As shown in Table 5.9, the average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis was 1.6 h in 2022, which was mostly the same as that in 2021. According to the distribution of average single-time charging duration (Fig. 5.26), the proportion of BEV e-taxis with an average single-time charging duration from 1 to 5 h increased from 47.1% in 2021 to 52.4% in 2022 by 5.3 percentage points. In contrast, the proportion of those with the duration of less than 1 h declined yearly, which to some extent indicated the rise in frequency of slow-charging mode by e-taxis.

Table 5.9 Average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis over the years

Fig. 5.26

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis—by year

Regarding the charging mode, the average single-time duration under fast charging mode was mainly within 1 h, with the number of vehicles accounting for 88.2%; while the duration under slow-charging mode was unevenly distributed (Fig. 5.27).

Fig. 5.27

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis in 2021—by fast charging and slow charging

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis was 39.9% in 2022, with a decrease from previous years.

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis was 39.9% in 2022 (Table 5.10), with a decrease from previous years. As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.28), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis concentrated at 30%–50% over the years, with a proportion of higher than 55%, and the concentration of BEV e-taxis in such range of SOC improved year by year.

Table 5.10 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis over the years

Fig. 5.28

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis-by year

In terms of charging mode (Fig. 5.29), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis using fast charging was between 20 and 50%, with a concentrated proportion; and that using slow charging was relatively dispersed, mainly ranging from 30 to 70%.

Fig. 5.29

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

• 2. Average daily charging characteristics of BEV e-taxis

In 2021, the overall charging time of BEV e-taxis was mainly distributed at 11:00 to 17:00 and in the period early in the morning.

In 2022, BEV e-taxis were mainly charged at 11:00–17:00 in the daytime (peak at 12:00 for driver’s rest and power replenishment). Compared to private cars, a smaller number of e-taxis charged during the morning and evening peak hours (Fig. 5.30), while a significantly higher number charged early in the morning.

Fig. 5.30

Distribution of charging time of BEV e-taxis—by year

From the perspective of charging mode, BEV e-taxis mainly took slow-charging mode in the early morning and fast charging mode temporarily in the daytime for power replenishment at 12:00 and 21:00 in the middle of the day. There were a large number of vehicles operating in the morning and evening rush hours, of which the e-taxis charging held a low proportion (Fig. 5.31).

Fig. 5.31

Distribution of charging time of BEV e-taxis in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

• 3. Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV e-taxis

The average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis read 30.9, and the monthly charging frequency rose steadily.

The average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis reached 28.9 in 2022, which increased steadily in the past three years (Table 5.11). Regarding the average monthly charging times (Fig. 5.32), the average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis in 2022 mainly ranged from 10 to 30, and the number of BEV e-taxis in such range accounted for nearly 50%. In view of charging mode, the proportion of fast charging for BEV e-taxis was 77.3% (Fig. 5.33), and the proportion of vehicles with fast charging over the years showed a momentum of constant growth over the years.

Table 5.11 Average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis over the years

Fig. 5.32

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis—by year

Fig. 5.33

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis over the years—by fast charging and slow charging

In 2022, the average monthly fast charging times of BEV e-taxis reached 23.9, with a slight increase.

The average monthly fast charging times of BEV e-taxis in 2022 reached 21.7, an increase from the past three years (Table 5.12). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.34), the proportion of BEV e-taxis with an average monthly fast charging exceeding 10 times was 68%, with an increase of 3.9 percentage points from 2020 and 0.1 percentage point from 2021. More vehicles took fast charging for temporary power replenishment in 2022.

Table 5.12 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV e-taxis over the years

Fig. 5.34

Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV e-taxis-by year

The monthly average slow charging times of BEV e-taxis maintained at around 7 as that in previous years.

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV e-taxis in 2022 stayed 7, mostly consistent with that in 2020 and 2021 (Table 5.13). By the distribution of the average monthly slow charging times (Fig. 5.35), the BEV e-taxis with an average monthly slow charging times fell within 10, with the number of vehicles involved accounting for more than 70% for the past three years.

Table 5.13 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV e-taxis over the years

Fig. 5.35

Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV e-taxis—by year

The average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis in 2022 was 657.2kWh, with a slight increase year on year.

The average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis in 2022 was 657.2kWh, with a slight increase from 2020 and 2021 (Table 5.14). In terms of fast charging, the distribution of monthly average charge of BEV e-taxis in 2022 was relatively decentralized, in which the proportion of the BEV e-taxis with 400kWh-700kWh was higher, reaching 30.36% (Fig. 5.36); in terms of slow charging, the proportion of BEV e-taxis with monthly average charge of more than 500kWh slightly increased from 2020 (Fig. 5.37).

Fig. 5.36

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis—by year for fast charging

Fig. 5.37

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis—by year for slow charging

Table 5.14 Average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis over the years

5.2.3 Charging Characteristics of BEV Taxis

• 1. Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV taxis

The distribution of BEV taxis’ annual average single-time charging duration was mainly within 1h.

The average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis in 2022 was 1.4 h, higher than that in previous years (Table 5.15) As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.38), the distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis was mainly concentrated within 1 h, and the proportion of vehicles with an average charging single-time charging duration of less than 1 h increased was higher than 60%, maintaining an upward momentum in 2022 since an increasing number of users take slow charging for replenishment.

Table 5.15 Average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis-average

Fig. 5.38

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis—by year

Regarding charging mode, BEV taxis with shorter average single-time charging duration were dominant, with those using fast charging with an average single-time charging duration of less than 1 h accounting for 88.2% and those using slow charging with an average single-time charging duration of less than 2 h accounting for 59.9% (Fig. 5.39). Regardless of fast or slow charging, it is a practical requirement for BEV taxis to enhance charging efficiency and shorten charging duration.

Fig. 5.39

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis in 2021—by fast charging and slow charging

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis declined steadily on a yearly basis.

In 2022, the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis was 41.4%, with a slight decrease from 2002 and 2021 (Table 5.16). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.40), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis was mainly distributed in the range of 30%–50%, and the proportion of vehicles within such range increased from 58.7% in 2020 to 72.2% in 2022.

Table 5.16 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis over the years

Fig. 5.40

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis—by year

As regards the charging mode, the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis using fast charging was mainly concentrated at 30%–50% (with number of vehicles concerned accounting for 69.25%), and that using slow charging was relatively dispersed (Fig. 5.41).

Fig. 5.41

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

• 2. Average daily charging characteristics of BEV taxis

BEV taxis mainly charged between 11:00 and 18:00 and in the early morning.

According to the distribution of charging time (Fig. 5.42), in 2022, BEV taxis charged more intensively between 11:00 and 18:00 as well as in the early morning after 0:00. By the charging mode, BEV taxis mainly took fast charging, and the proportion of those using slow charging was relatively low (Fig. 5.43).

Fig. 5.42

Distribution of charging time of BEV taxis—by year

Fig. 5.43

Distribution of charging time of BEV taxis in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

• 3. Average Monthly Charging Characteristics of BEV Taxis

The average monthly charging times of BEV taxis in 2022 read 30.1, with a decrease from 2021 but a slight increase over 2020 (Table 5.17).

Table 5.17 Average monthly charging times of BEV taxis over the years

Table 5.18 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV taxis over the years

Regarding the average monthly charging times, most of the BEV taxis charged 10 to 40 times on average in a month with a proportion of taxis involved accounting for 60.5% (Fig. 5.44). Considering the charging mode, 82.4% of the BEV taxis mainly chose fast charging for power replenishment in 2022 (Fig. 5.45). BEV taxis mainly took fast charging for power replenishment and the proportion of fast charging showed an upward momentum.

Fig. 5.44

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV taxis—by year

Fig. 5.45

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV taxis over the years—by fast charging and slow charging

In 2022, the average monthly fast charging times of BEV taxis read 24.8, showing a decrease year on year(Table 5.18.)

As per the distribution of average monthly fast charging times (Fig. 5.46), the average monthly fast charging times of BEV taxis n 2022 mainly fell within 30 times, with 67.8% of the taxis involved, an increase of 26.8 percentage points year-on-year.

Fig. 5.46

Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV taxis—by year

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis in 2022 were 4.3 times, with an increase compared with that in 2021.

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis in 2022 were 4.3 times, with a decrease compared with 2021 (Table 5.19). According to the distribution of monthly average slow charging times (Fig. 5.47), the slow charging frequency of BEV taxis was mainly 10 times per month.

Table 5.19 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis over the years

Fig. 5.47

Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis—by year

The average monthly charge of BEV taxis was 686.5kWh in 2022, with a YoY decrease of 27.3% but slightly higher than that in 2020.

The average monthly charge of BEV taxis was 944.5kWh in 2022, with a YOY decrease from 2021 but slightly higher than that in 2020 (Table 5.20). From the distribution of average monthly charge (Fig. 5.48), 55.2% of BEV taxis used fast charging with an average monthly charge between 200 and 800kWh, with an increase of 8.5 percentage points from 2020 and 23.8 percentage points from 2021; while those using slow charging mainly charged within 200kWh per month on average (Fig. 5.49).

Fig. 5.48

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV taxis—by year for fast charging

Fig. 5.49

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV taxis—by year for slow charging

Table 5.20 Average monthly charge of BEV taxis over the years

5.2.4 Charging Characteristics of BEV Cars for Sharing

• 1. Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV cars for sharing

The average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing was mainly concentrated within 1h.

The average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing in 2022 was 2 h, with a slight increase for the past three years (Table 5.21). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.50), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with an average single-time charging duration from 1 to 5 h in 2022 reached 54.2%, with a significant increase year on year.

Table 5.21 Average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing over the years

Fig. 5.50

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing—by year

Considering the charging duration on weekdays and weekends, the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with an average single-time charging duration of less than 2 h during weekdays was lower than that during weekends (Fig. 5.51).

Fig. 5.51

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing in 2022—by weekday and weekend

Regarding the charging mode, the average single-time charging duration of over 85% of BEV cars for sharing using fast charging was mainly concentrated within 1 h; the average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing using slow charging was relatively dispersed. Those with charging time within 5 h accounted for 86.65% (Fig. 5.52).

Fig. 5.52

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing declined year by year.

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing was 41.8% in 2022, showing a downward trend for the past three years (Table 5.22). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.53), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing was mainly concentrated at 30%–50%, and the proportion of vehicles within this range over the years was higher than 50%.

Table 5.22 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing over the years

Fig. 5.53

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing—by year

From the distribution by weekdays and weekends, the average single-time charging initial SOC on weekdays was generally higher than that on weekends (Fig. 5.54), and the proportion of those charging in high SOC on weekdays was higher.

Fig. 5.54

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing in 2022—by weekday and weekend

Regarding charging methods, the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing using fast charging was mainly concentrated at 30%–50%, with the proportion of vehicles in such range accounting for 56.3%, and that using slow charging was relatively dispersed (Fig. 5.55).

Fig. 5.55

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

• 2. Average daily charging characteristics of BEV cars for sharing

The proportion of BEV cars for sharing mainly charged in the daytime, peaking at 12:00.

Regarding the charging time (Fig. 5.56), BEV cars for sharing mainly charged from 11:00 to 17:00, with a large proportion of vehicles charging in the daytime; by charging mode, the cars for sharing in fast charging mode mainly charged from 6:00 to 7:00, 12:00 to 13:00, and 1:00 to 2:00 (next morning). While the vehicles charged under slow charging mode were distributed dispersedly in different periods of time (Fig. 5.57).

Fig. 5.56

Distribution of charging time of BEV cars for sharing—by year

Fig. 5.57

Distribution of charging time of BEV cars for sharing in 2022—by fast charging and slow charging

• 3. Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV cars for sharing

The average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2022 read 21.8, with an increase year by year.

The average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2022 read 21.8, with a steady growth for the past three years (Table 5.23). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.58), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with average monthly charging times between 20 and 40 ascended to 35% by 7.2 percentage points from 2020 and 3.2 percentage points from 2021.

Table 5.23 Average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing over the years

Fig. 5.58

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing—by year

By the charging mode, fast charging has become the major charging mode for BEV cars for sharing with those using fast charging accounting for 79% in 2022(Fig. 5.59), showing an increase from 2020 and 2021.

Fig. 5.59

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing over the years—by fast charging and slow charging

The average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing showed a growing trend yearly.

The average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing were 16, with an increase of 0.6 times compared with 2021 (Table 5.24). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.60), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with average monthly fast charging times between 20 and 40 increased from 29.8% in 2020 to 32.6% in 2022.

Table 5.24 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing over the years

Fig. 5.60

Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing—by year

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2022 read 11.8, with a slight decrease from 2021.

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2021 recorded 11.8, with a slight decrease from 2021 (Table 5.25). As the distribution indicates (Fig. 5.61), in the past three years, the average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing were mainly concentrated within 10 times, within which the proportion of vehicles involved was 79%, with an increase of 18 percentage points from 2021 and basically the same as that in 2020.

Table 5.25 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing over the years

Fig. 5.61

Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing—by year

The monthly average charge of BEV cars for sharing was 463.4kWh, with a slight increase year on year.

The monthly average charge of BEV cars for sharing was 463.4kWh in 2022, with a slight increase year on year (Table 5.26). From the distribution of average monthly charge (Fig. 5.62), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing using fast charging with an average monthly charge of 400kWh to 1,000kWh was significantly higher than that in 2021, from 21.9% in 2020 to 40.2% in 2022.

Table 5.26 Average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing over the years

Fig. 5.62

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing—by year for fast charging

Compared to 2021, in 2022, the average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing using slow charging decreased (Fig. 5.63), wherein those with an average monthly charge within 100kWh accounted for 73.4%, up 32.6 percentage points year on year.

Fig. 5.63

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing—by year for slow charging

5.2.5 Charging Characteristics of BEV Logistics Vehicles

• 1. Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV logistics vehicles

The average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022 decreased from 2021.

The average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022 was 1.8 h, down 0.3 h from 2021 (Table 5.27). From the distribution of average single-time charging duration (Fig. 5.64), the proportion of vehicles with an average single-time charging duration of less than 1 h increased compared with the previous two years.

Table 5.27 Average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles over the years

Fig. 5.64

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles—by year

The distribution pattern of the number of BEV logistics vehicles with an average single-time charging duration was mostly consistent on both weekdays and weekends, and those with an average single-time charging duration of less than 2 h exceeded 70% (Fig. 5.65). There was little change in the working intensity of BEV logistics vehicles seven days a week given the basically consistent changes of charging duration on both weekdays and weekends.

Fig. 5.65

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022—by weekday and weekend

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles was 46.1%, with a slight decrease from past years.

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles was 46.1% in 2022, showing a downward trend (Table 5.28). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.66), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles was concentrated at 40%–60%, and the proportion of vehicles in such range in 2022 slightly increased from past years. The distribution of vehicles featuring high charging initial SOC during weekends was higher that during weekdays (Fig. 5.67).

Table 5.28 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles over the years

Fig. 5.66

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles—by year

Fig. 5.67

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022—by weekday and weekend

• 2. Average daily charging characteristics of BEV logistics vehicles

Logistics vehicles mainly charged in the rush hours in the morning, at noon, and in the evening, of which the proportion at noon and night was higher.

BEV logistics vehicles in 2022 mainly charged at three periods, namely at 07:00, at 13:00, and around 18:00–19:00 (Fig. 5.68). In view of the changes in the proportion of vehicles changing within the day, the proportion of BEV logistics vehicles charging after 08:00 in the morning in 2022 was significantly higher than that in 2021. According to the distribution of the proportion of vehicles in each period of time under different charging modes, the proportion of those with fast charging was significantly higher than that with slow charging (Fig. 5.69), indicating that BEV logistics vehicles preferred fast charging mode.

Fig. 5.68

Distribution of charging time of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022

Fig. 5.69

Distribution of charging time of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022—by weekday and weekend

• 3. Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV logistics vehicles

The average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022 logged 22.3, with a slight increase from 2020.

The average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles read 22.3 in 2022, showing a YoY decrease, but an increase of 8.3% over 2020 (Table 5.29). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.70), the average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles fell in 30, with the proportion of vehicles concerned exceeding 75%.

Table 5.29 Average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the years

Fig. 5.70

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles—by year

Considering the charging mode (Fig. 5.71), the proportion of BEV logistics vehicles taking fast charging increased year by year, and proportion of vehicles taking fast charging in 2022 reached 73.7%.

Fig. 5.71

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the years—by fast charging and slow charging

The average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles steadily increased.

In 2022, the average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles read 15.4, up 74.4% in 2020 and 1.9% in 2021 (Table 5.30). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.72), the average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles gradually concentrated to 10 to 30, during which the proportion of vehicles within such range reached 53%, up 15.6 percentage points year on year.

Table 5.30 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the years

Fig. 5.72

Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles—by year

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022 logged 5.6, with a significant decrease within the past three years.

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022 logged 5.6 (Table 5.31), showing a fall in the past three years. Specifically, the proportion of BEV logistics vehicles with average monthly slow charging times of less than 10 was 82.3% (Fig. 5.73), and the number of BEV logistics vehicles using slow charging decreased. Under the coexistence of multiple charging modes, BEV logistics vehicles tended to choose fast charging considering the cost in time.

Table 5.31 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the years

Fig. 5.73

Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles—by year

Average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles in 2022.

The operational capacity of logistics vehicles is still recovering from the impact of the pandemic (Table 5.32). The average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles reached 468.1kWh in 2022, showing a YoY decrease, but an increase of 7.5% over 2020. As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.74), the proportion of BEV logistics vehicles using fast charging with an average monthly charge of more than 400kWh increased from 20.1% in 2020 to 29%% in 2022 by 8.9 percentage points. Based on the average power consumption of BEV logistics vehicles of 32.2kWh/100 km in 2022, nearly 20% of BEV logistics vehicles drove a daily mileage exceeding 120 km.

Table 5.32 Average monthly charge of BEV buses over the years

Fig. 5.74

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles—by year for fast charging

The average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles using slow charging was mainly concentrated within 200kWh, and the proportion of vehicles with such range rose from 69.4% in 2020 to 85.8% in 2022 (Fig. 5.75), indicating that fast charging was more favored by BEV logistics vehicles.

Fig. 5.75

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles—by year for slow charging

5.2.6 Charging Characteristics of BEV Buses

• 1. Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV buses

The average single-time charging duration of BEV buses was mainly concentrated around 1h, mostly consistent with that in previous years.

The single-time charging duration of BEV buses was 1.2 h in 2022, mostly consistent with that in previous years (Table 5.33). The proportion of BEV buses with an average single-time charging duration of less than 2 h in 2022 was the highest, with the proportion of vehicles over the years of more than 70% (Fig. 5.76).

Table 5.33 Average single-time charging duration of BEV buses over the years

Fig. 5.76

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV buses—by year

The distribution of charging initial SOC maintained consistent over the years, and the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses in 2022 was 56.5%.

In 2022, the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses was 56.5%, which was basically the same as that in the past two years (Table 5.34). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.77), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses concentrated at 40%–70%, and the proportion of vehicles within such range in 2022 exceeded 75%. With the gradual completion of the charging infrastructure of public transport stations, bus charging has now become accessible where needed, and the single-time charging initial SOC basically remained the same over the years. In addition, the regular charging operation mechanism lifted the initial SOC.

Table 5.34 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses over the years

Fig. 5.77

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses—by year

The average charging rate of buses has basically remained stable over the years at above 0.7C. BEV buses mainly used fast charging for power replenishment. From changes in the average charging rate of BEV buses over the years (Table 5.35), the charging rate of BEV buses has basically remained stable over the years at above 0.7C, namely 1 h-2 h on average for full replenishment.

Table 5.35 Average charging rate of BEV buses over the years

The proportion of BEV buses with a charging rate ranging from 0.2C to 0.8C was relatively high, reaching 71.8% (Fig. 5.78), indicating that most new energy buses took about 2 h-3 h for full replenishment. The proportion of BEV buses with a charging rate ranging from 0.2C to 0.8C kept increasing, from 64.0% in 2020 to 71.8% in 2022, with a higher concentration of vehicles in such range.

Fig. 5.78

Distribution of charging rate of BEV buses over the years

• 2. Average daily charging characteristics of BEV buses

BEV buses mainly charged in the daytime, especially at 12:00 (noon) and in the evening.

As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.79), the charging peaks of BEV buses were found at 12:00 (noon), 22:00, and 03:00, representing a higher attendance in the morning and at night with higher frequency of dispatching and a smaller number of charges.

Fig. 5.79

Distribution of charging time of BEV buses—by year

• 3. Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV buses

The average monthly charging times of BEV buses in 2022 were 33.6 times, higher than that in 2020.

The average monthly charging times of BEV buses in 2022 were 33.6 times, with a slight increase compared with 2020 (Table 5.36). The average monthly charging times of BEV buses mainly ranged from 20 to 30 (Fig. 5.80), with the proportion of vehicles concerned accounting for 28.6%.

Table 5.36 Average monthly charging times of BEV buses over the years

Fig. 5.80

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV buses—by year

The average monthly charge of BEV buses was 2,071.5kWh in 2022, with a decrease from 2021 and an increase from 2020.

In 2022, the average monthly charge of BEV buses was 2,071.5kWh, with an increase of 8.3% from 2020 (Table 5.37). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.81), the distribution of average monthly charge of BEV buses in 2022 was basically the same as that in 2020. In 2022, a larger number of vehicles fell in the range of 1,000kWh and 3,000kWh for average monthly charge than that in 2020, with the proportion increasing from 60.6% in 2020 to 67.1% in 2022.

Table 5.37 Average monthly charge of BEV buses over the years

Fig. 5.81

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV buses—by year

5.2.7 Charging Characteristics of BEV Heavy-Duty Trucks

• 1. Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV heavy-duty trucks

The average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks was 1.6h, basically the same as that in previous years.

The average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks in 2022 was 1.6 h, mostly consistent with that in previous years (Table 5.38). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.82), the proportion of vehicles with a single-time charging duration of less than 1 h increased from 21% in 2020 to 90.4% in 2022. The improvement of charging facilities increased the application of fast charging. Since the charging power of fast charging piles gradually increased, charging time kept shortening.

Table 5.38 Average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years

Fig. 5.82

Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks was 47.8%, mostly the same as that in previous years.

The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks was 47.8% in 2022, which was mostly the same as that in previous years (Table 5.39). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.83), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks was mainly from 40 to 60%, and the proportion of vehicles concerned exceeded 60% for years. Thanks to the improvement of charging infrastructure for BEV heavy-duty trucks, the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks maintained basically unchanged in the past three years.

Table 5.39 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years

Fig. 5.83

Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year

• 2. Average daily charging characteristics of BEV heavy-duty trucks

The charging time for BEV heavy-duty trucks throughout the day was mainly from 16:00 to 19:00 and in the early morning.

By the distribution of vehicles in each charging period throughout the day (Fig. 5.84), the charging time of BEV heavy-duty trucks mainly fell between 16:00 and 19:00 and in the early morning. In 2022, the proportion of BEV heavy-duty trucks are scattered in different periods of time.

Fig. 5.84

Distribution of charging time of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year

• 3. Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV heavy-duty trucks

The average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks reached 29.4, with a slight growth over 2020 and 2021.

The average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks were 29.4 times in 2022, showing a slight growth from 2020 and 2021 (Table 5.40). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.85), the average monthly charging times of most heavy-duty trucks fell between 20 and 40, with the proportion of such trucks accounting for 50.5%.

Table 5.40 Average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years

Fig. 5.85

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year

Considering the charging mode, BEV heavy-duty trucks mainly took fast charging for power replenishment. As shown in Fig. 5.86, the proportion of fast charging times for BEV heavy-duty trucks increased year by year, and the highest data was recorded in 2022, reaching 83.7%. Since commercial vehicles laid higher stress on time costs, shortening the charging time becomes an important approach to speed up the energy transformation and ensure the operational efficiency of the fleet for BEV heavy-duty trucks.

Fig. 5.86

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years—by fast charging and slow charging

The average monthly fast charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks showed an increasing trend yearly.

The average monthly fast charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks were 24.6 times in 2022, showing stable growth for the past three years (Table 5.41). As the distribution manifests (Fig. 5.87), the proportion of BEV heavy-duty trucks with average monthly fast charging times between 20 and 50 increased from 41.5% in 2020 to 47.1% in 2022.

Table 5.41 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years

Fig. 5.87

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year for fast charging

The monthly average slow charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks showed an overall downward trend.

The average monthly slow charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks in 2022 read 4.8 times, with a slight decrease in the past three years (Table 5.42). As the distribution indicates (Fig. 5.88), the proportion of BEV heavy-duty trucks with less than 10 slow charging times per monthly on average increased to 72.1% in 2022.

Table 5.42 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years

Fig. 5.88

Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year for slow charging

The average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks increased steadily in 2022.

In 2022, the average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks was 4,601.7kWh, with an increase of 6.7% from 2020 and 1.9% from 2021 (Table 5.43). As the distribution shows, BEV heavy-duty trucks with an average monthly charge of more than 1,000kWh accounted for the absolute majority (Fig. 5.89).

Table 5.43 Average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years

Fig. 5.89

Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year for fast charging

5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging Scenarios

Considering that under different charging scenarios, there may be great differences in the type of charged vehicle, the distribution of charging start time, and the charging duration, this Section, based on four different charging scenarios, namely urban public charging station, community charging station, expressway charging station, and township charging station, analyzes the characteristics of users’ charging behaviors.

5.3.1 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Public Charging Stations

Fast-changing mode took a dominant position in the public charging stations, and the charging duration was less than 1h.

A public charging station is the station built in a public place in the city and accessible to all vehicles in the whole society. In order to accurately describe the charging behavior of users in public charging stations, this Section is intended to identify the features related to public charging stations by fitting vehicle charging data and charging station locations in a city. As shown in Fig. 5.90, the service targets of public charging stations were mainly private cars and taxis, e-taxis, and the proportion of passenger cars charged in public stations in 2022 was 80.2%, up 5.2 percentage points year on year.

Fig. 5.90

Difference in distribution of vehicles charged in public charging stations—by key segments

Fast charging piles were the major charging facilities in the public charging stations, which were operated in the manner close to public gas stations. As shown in Fig. 5.91, in 2022, the proportion of private cars, taxis, e-taxis, logistics vehicles, and buses staying in public charging places for less than 1 h all accounted for higher than 60%. With the rapid growth of NEV holding volume, the proportion of high-power charging piles in public charging stations kept increasing, which might result in higher pressure on power grid during the peak hours of charging.

Fig. 5.91

Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in public charging stations—by key segments

5.3.2 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Community Charging Stations

Private cars and taxis/e-taxis played a major role among the vehicles charging in community stations, and the charging duration was less than 1h in general.

community charging station is a station established to provide external services within the boundaries of urban residential neighborhoods. In order to accurately describe the charging behavior of users in community charging stations, this Section is intended to identify the features related to community charging stations by fitting vehicle charging data and charging station locations in a city. As indicated in Fig. 5.92, the community charging stations were mainly intended for private cars, taxis/e-taxis, and other vehicles, of which private cars dominated. The proportion of private cars charged at community charging stations was above 60% in 2020 and 2021. Regarding the changes in the type of vehicles charged over the years, the proportion of private cars and taxis/e-taxis charging in community charging stations increased.

Fig. 5.92

Distribution of vehicles in community charging stations over the years—by key segments.

As shown in Fig. 5.93, the single-time staying duration of private cars and taxis/e-taxis in community charging stations was less than 1 h, and the proportion of private cars and taxis/ e-taxis with a staying duration of less than 1 h after charging reached 77.5%, significantly higher than that of private cars.

Fig. 5.93

Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in community charging stations—by key segments

5.3.3 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Expressway Charging Stations

The charging stations along the expressway were mainly for private cars, which stayed less than 1h after charging.

An expressway charging station is a station established on the expressway and accessible to all vehicles in the society. In order to accurately describe the charging behavior of users in expressway charging stations, this Section is intended to identify the features related to expressway charging stations by fitting vehicle charging data and charging station locations in a city. In view of Fig. 5.94, the proportion of private cars charging in expressway charging stations was higher, and, with the rapid growth of market demand, the proportion of private cars charging in expressway charging stations grew steadily from 43.6% in 2020 to 51.4% in 2022. With the growing holding volume of private cars and demand for long-distance self-driving tour, the charging pressure along the expressway keeps increasing during holidays. It is imperative to make rational plans for building charging facilities along the expressway and conducting information operation and normal maintenance.

Fig. 5.94

Distribution of vehicles charged in expressway charging stations—by key segments

In terms of the distribution of average single-time charging duration (Fig. 5.95), the staying duration of private cars, taxis/e-taxis, and logistics vehicles at expressway charging stations in 2022 mainly fell within 1 h, and the proportion of vehicles in such range was about 90%.

Fig. 5.95

Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in expressway charging stations-by key segments

Charging stations along expressways exhibit typical holiday peak characteristics.

Taking the National Day of 2022 as an example, 66 charging stations along the Shanghai-Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou intercity expressway in the Yangtze River Delta were selected as the research objects to analyze the charging and waiting characteristics of vehicles in expressway charging stations in order to provide a relevant reference for further optimizing the layout of expressway charging stations. According to the statistics, the average daily turnover rate of a single pile of 66 charging stations along the Shanghai-Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou intercity expressway in the Yangtze River Delta increased from 6.5 vehicles/pile·day in 2021 to 6.7 vehicles/pile·day in 2022. The weekly turnover rate of charging piles during National Day was significantly higher than that on normal days. In specific, the turnover rate during the National Day holiday in 2022 (October 1–7), the weekly turnover rate reached 9.4 vehicles/pile·day, 180.6% of that on normal days (5.2 vehicles/pile·day) (Fig. 5.96). In terms of the working hours of charging piles at charging stations along the expressway, the average charging duration per pile during the National Day was about twice as long as that on a normal day, and the peak characteristics of the holiday were more highlighted.

Fig. 5.96

Daily turnover rate of charging stations along the intercity expressway in the Yangtze River Delta before and after the National Day in 2022

5.3.4 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Township Charging Stations

The township charging stations were mainly used by private cars, with the proportion of taxis/e-taxis growing rapidly.

A township charging station is a station established to provide external services within the territorial scope of a township. In order to accurately describe the charging behavior of users in township charging stations, this Section is intended to identify the features related to township charging stations by fitting vehicle charging data and charging station locations in a township. As Fig. 5.97 indicates, as the main service object of the charging stations in the township, private cars accounted for more than 60% of the total. In terms of annual changes, in 2022, the proportion of new energy taxis/e-taxis charged was 20.2%, a significant increase year-on-year. Thanks to the superior operating costs of new energy taxis/e-taxis over traditional fuel vehicles, new energy taxis/e-taxis were growing rapidly within townships and villages.

Fig. 5.97

Difference in distribution of vehicles charged in township charging stations in 2021—by key segments

In respect of the single-time charging staying duration (Fig. 5.98), the charging duration of private cars, taxis/e-axis, and logistics vehicles in township charging stations was concentrated within 1 h, and the proportion of each type of vehicles in such range was above 60%. Compared with private cars, the single-time charging staying duration of operating vehicles was shorter.

Fig. 5.98

Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in township charging stations—by key segments

5.4 Charging Characteristics of New and Old Residential Areas in Typical Cities

Charging infrastructure provides battery swapping and swapping services for BEVs as an important infrastructure featuring transportation and energy integration. With the rapid growth of the holding volume of NEVs in China, the charging infrastructure was facing improper structure in layout and distribution. In particular, charging infrastructure is difficult to be properly built and established, while the newly-built residential areas have certain advantages in contrast. Referring to the Charging Infrastructure Monitoring Report of Major Cities in China in 2023 jointly compiled by China Academy of Urban Planning & Design and the National Big Data Alliance of New Energy Vehicles, this Section analyzes the spatial and temporal distribution of charging demand for new energy passenger vehicles, the convenience of charging for different types of passenger vehicles, and the convenience of charging for passenger vehicles within the scope of different regions in Beijing, with the aim to provide suggestions for the development of the construction of NEV charging facilities for new and old residential areas and boost the growth of NEV industry.

5.4.1 Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Charging Demand for Passenger Cars by Type

The charging position of private passenger cars in the nighttime and the daytime was highly consistent with that in job-housing spaces.

The charging demand for private passenger cars in the daytime in Beijing was mainly in employment centers, while that in the nighttime was mainly in major residential areas (Fig. 5.99). During the day, the charging duration in Shangdi Street had the highest record, and the charging demand in major employment centers around Tongzhou District, the China World Trade Center, Financial Street, Wanshou Road, Wangjing Subdistrict, Zhongguancun, Huaxiang Street, and Yizhuang Area was high. At night, Huilongguan-Tiantongyuan region, Wangjing Subdistrict, Jinsong, Qingta, Guang’anmenwai Subdistrict, Tiancun Village, Sijiqing, and other areas showed high charging demand, while Boxing Street in Yizhuang logged the highest charging demand within the whole city. However, for the lack of charging infrastructure, the charging demand of the old residential areas in Dongcheng and Xicheng Districts failed to be satisfied in the daytime and nighttime.

Fig. 5.99

Relationship between charging position and job-housing space of private passenger cars at different periods of time

The total charging hours and space of private passenger with DC charging cars were less than those with AC charging.

DC charging has not yet become the mainstay of the charging of private passenger cars. The DC charging hours of private passenger cars was only about 77.0% of AC charging hours (Fig. 5.100). DC charging features good spatial continuity in the expressway loop in the north of the city, with high demand for DC charging in such regions as the China World Trade Center, Wangjing Subdistrict, Huilongguan-Tiantongyuan section, Shangdi, and Sijiqing. There lied an uncovered area of DC charging infrastructure in the south of Beijing. The coverage of AC charging was significantly larger than that of DC charging, with high demand for charging in suburban settlements around Changping, Tongzhou, Daxing, Liangxiang, and Mentougou.

Fig. 5.100

Relationship between charging hours and spatial scope of private passenger cars under different charging modes

For rental passenger cars, DC charging mainly centered in the downtown areas, while AC charging in the surrounding areas.

The spatial distribution of DC charging was consistent with that of charging in the daytime. Xueyuan Road, Laiguangying, Shuangjing, Shilihe, Huaxiang, and Wulidian on the ring roadfeatured high charging hours (Fig. 5.101). AC charging was spatially far away from the downtown. Huilongguan-Tiantongyuan section in Changping District in the north, Nangong in the southwest, and Sanjianfang in the southeast are the three main suburban charging areas, while outer suburban charging areas were mainly in Fangshan District.

Fig. 5.101

Relationship between charging hours and spatial scope of rental passenger cars under different charging modes

5.4.2 Analysis of Charging Convenience of Passenger Cars by Type

The samples of NEVs in UPOR was sourced as of the end of December 2022 at the locations where NEVs were usually parked at night during the period from October to December 2022 as the points of attribution of the vehicles. October 2022 was selected as the month of characteristics for charging convenience indicator, for which the proportion of charging times, charging degrees, and charging hours of the NEVs within a certain radius (500 m, 1 km, 2 km, 5 km, and 10 km) in the UPOR at night to the total the month of characteristics. The indicator for the UPOR in the nighttime in this Section was selected from the period of October to December 2022. The locations where vehicles were parked for more than four hours between 18:00 and 06:00 the next day and had the highest number of stops were assigned as the indicators.

The charging convenience of private passenger cars within 500 meters of the UPOR was poor and improved rapidly within 1km.

According to the statistics, the average charging times of private passenger cars in Beijing held an account of 56% within 500 m around the UPOR, which is lower than the average (70%) for rental passenger cars and the average (79%) for buses (Fig. 5.102). In terms of the distribution (Fig. 5.103), 68.7% of private passenger cars within 500 m had charging behavior; when the radius increased from 500 m to 1 km, the average of the proportion of charging times of private passenger cars increased rapidly to 70%, and approximately 85% of the cars could be recharged within 500 m of UPOR. It reflected the urgent demand of private electric vehicle owners in Beijing for charging within 1 km around UPOR and also indicated that whether charging is available within 1 km of UPOR is an important factor affecting the promotion of private passenger cars. As the radius gradually increased to 10 km, the average proportion of charging times for private passenger cars countered that of rental passenger cars and buses, reaching 88%, which was related to the wide range and type of charging piles available for private passenger cars, including private and public piles at the UPOR and special and public piles at the second parking locations (e.g., workplace).

Fig. 5.102

Average proportion of charging times of three types of BEVs at UPOR within different radii in Beijing

Fig. 5.103

Proportion of private passenger cars charging at UPOR within different radii in Beijing

The driving and charging characteristics of private passenger cars were positively correlated with the convenience of charging within 500 meters of the UPOR.

The correlation analysis of charging convenience within 500 m of the UPOR was conducted based on the results of the index set of each street in townships Beijing. The results (Fig. 5.104) showed that the average charging duration and average monthly mileage are positively correlative to the proportion of charging times within a radius of 500 m. The improved accessibility of charging within 500 m of UPOR means that private car owners are provided with better conditions for long-term replenishment to secure sufficient driving mileage, thus enhancing users’ willingness to drive and increasing the range of travel.

Fig. 5.104

Relationship between driving and charging characteristics and charging convenience of private passenger cars in Beijing. Remark The number of dots represents the number of communities with charging facilities for NEVs in Beijing

The better the charging convenience of new energy passenger cars, the longer the single-time charging duration.

As the proportion of vehicles charging within 500 m of UPOR increases, the single-time charging duration of all four types of passenger cars also showed an upward trend. The single-time charging duration reached the acme for the four types of passenger cars when the proportion of charging times of each within a 500 m radius at respective UPOR ranged from 80 to 100% (Fig. 5.105). As the proportion of charging times within a 500 m radius of UPOR rose, the average single-time charging duration for passenger cars increased from 1.8 h to 3.5 h. Where charging conditions permit, more users preferred slow charging due to advantages in charging cost and more users preferred to charge more to guarantee sufficient power. Therefore, charging convenience played an important role in saving users’ charging costs and reducing mileage anxiety.

Fig. 5.105

Comparison between the proportion of passenger cars charging within a 500 m radius of UPOR and single-time charging duration in Beijing—by type

The charging convenience of private passenger cars in urban area of Beijing was generally low.

According to the statistics of BEV private passenger cars in Beijing by administrative areas, the proportion of private passenger cars with charging behaviors within a 500 m radius of UPOR was only 57.3% of those parking at night in the functional core area of Beijing (UPOR), meaning that the rest 42.7% had no charging behavior within a 500 m radius of UPOR (Fig. 5.106). For private passenger cars located in other urban areas such as Haidian District, Chaoyang District, Fengtai District, and Shijingshan District, the charging convenience was slightly higher than that of the core area in Beijing, with 65.8% of private passenger cars having charging behaviors within a 500 m radius of UPOR (the rest 34.2% not). By sorting all the townships and streets in Beijing by the mean value of the proportion of charging times within a 500 m radius of UPOR, it can be found that the 30 townships and streets at the bottom of the list in terms of charging convenience were mainly located in the six districts of Beijing, of which more than half were located in the core area of Beijing, represented by Chaoyangmen Street, Donghuashijie Street, Dashilar Street, and Desheng Street, and more than one third are located in the other urban districts, represented by Chaowai Street, Yanyuan Street, and Maizidian Street.

Fig. 5.106

Distribution of charging convenience within 500 m of UPOR of private passenger cars by district in Beijing. Remarks The functional core areas as highlighted in the picture above include Dongcheng District and Xicheng District; other urban areas include Haidian District, Chaoyang District, Fengtai District, and Shijingshan District; the suburbs include other areas except the aforesaid six districts

The charging convenience of suburban streets was generally better than that of urban areas, while concerns should be put on some towns and villages.

The median of the proportion of charging times for private passenger cars in Beijing within a 500 m radius of UPOR was 59%, indicating that the convenience should be improved (Fig. 5.107). Private passenger cars in Beijing were distributed in 319 streets within the urban area, with the largest coverage among the four types of passenger cars and special logistics vehicles. The median of the proportion of charging times for private passenger cars within a 500 m radius and a 500 m to 1 km radius of UPOR was 59% and 14%, respectively, with the overall convenience of charging to be improved.

Fig. 5.107

Distribution of charging convenience within 500 m of UPOR of private passenger cars by district in Beijing

The 20 streets featuring the highest charging convenience were mainly located in the outer suburbs, since private piles can be easily installed given the large number of bungalows with courtyards in the suburbs and it is easier to erect public charging piles in areas featuring better promotions. TOP20 streets covered Fengjiayu Town and Puwa Township in Miyun and Fangshan Districts.

The 20 streets at the bottom were mainly distributed in the six major districts of Beijing. Within a 500 m radius of UPOR, the 20 streets ranking in the bottom were mainly distributed in six city districts, such as Dashilar Street, Chaoyangmen Street, and Donghuashixi Street, in descending order of the proportion of charging times of private passenger cars are charged at night within a 500 m radius of UPOR. The lower ranking of the streets concerned was mainly affected by the insufficient fixed parking spaces in old residential areas, the difficulty in installing piles for vehicles, as well as the constraints on the installation and distribution of public piles. Qianjiadian Town, Yanqing, located in the suburbs, also ranked lower in charging convenience, indicating that the promotion and construction of charging piles should not be ignored in the outer suburbs with a smaller number of NEVs.

5.5 Summary

By analyzing the charging data of NEVs accessed to the National Monitoring and Management Platform, this Section draws the following conclusions based on the charging characteristics of NEVs in key segments:

Driven by the rapid growth of NEV industry, the construction of charging infrastructure in China has shifted from policy-driven to market demand-driven. By the end of 2022, China had a total number of 13.1 million NEVs. With the full marketization of the NEV industry, the charging demand of NEVs keeps increasing. In 2021 and 2022, the increment of China's charging infrastructure was 1.01 million units and 2.451 million units, respectively, up 114.6% and 142.7%, respectively. The construction of charging facilities in China still lagging behind the NEV industry, despite the encouraging growth rate. How to improve the construction and distribution of charging facilities has become a great challenge for the market-oriented development of NEV across the board.

Fast charging could greatly improve the charging experience, making it a major trend towards the evolution of power replenishment technology for NEVs in the future. In terms of the charging characteristics in typical application scenarios, in 2022, the proportion of fast charging times of all types of vehicles kept rising year on year. For operating vehicles, the increase in the proportion of fast charging times would enhance the profitability of operators moving towards the inflection points. Given the changes in the average power of public charging facilities over the years, the number of high-power charging piles of 120 kW and above accounted for 24.4% of the national total in 2022, up 4.7% compared with 2017, indicating that the high-power fast charging piles have become a trend. As for vehicle manufacturers, those represented by Tesla (400 V supercharging), XPeng, and GAC Aion are also stepping up the distribution and construction of supercharging stations to further promote the supercharging models.

In terms of charging habits and preferences, the charging performance of private cars and operating vehicles greatly varied. By the charging frequency of vehicles in different application scenarios, in 2022, the new energy private cars in China charged 6.5 times per month and 1–2 times per week. The operating vehicles featured high charging frequency. The average monthly charging frequency of e-taxis and taxis exceeded 30 times, with the average daily frequency of 1–2 times, mainly in fast charging mode. Commercial vehicles, logistics vehicles, buses, and heavy-duty trucks were mainly charged with exclusive charging facilities, with an average monthly charging frequency of more than 20 times. In terms of charging duration, the average single-time charging duration of private cars in China in 2022 was 2 h, which was longer. As for operating passenger cars, the average charging duration of e-taxi and taxis was 1.6 h and 1.4 h, respectively. As to commercial vehicles, the average charging duration of logistics vehicles, buses, and heavy-duty trucks was less than 2 h.

The rapid increase of vehicles in volume, fast charging mode, disorderly charging, and other factors posed load pressure to the urban distribution network. According to data on the National Monitoring and Management Platform, a total of 7,926,300 new energy private cars accessed to the platform in 2022. Based on the monthly charge of BEV private cars of 85.4kWh, the charge demand of new energy private cars in China reached 8,122.9GWh in 2022. With the rapid growth the volume of NEVs in China, such variables as the peak charging demand of private cars and the random load incurred from disorderly charging resulted in drastic changes in the power load in various locations, thus causing over-capacity of distribution transformers, affecting the safe and stable operation of the power grid.

The “last mile” charging in old residential areas is a new problem in development, which requires overall coordination in joint efforts of various parties concerned. This Section, with new energy passenger cars in Beijing as the object of research, analyzes the charging demands and convenience of passenger cars, and suggests that DC fast charging network be installed as needed for operating vehicles with regard to the charging characteristics and major problems of new energy passenger vehicles in different types and in different urban areas. For the operating vehicles subject to fixed routes, points, and stations, it is recommended that the proportion of DC fast charging piles be satisfied as per the planning of vehicle stations and the monthly charging demand of vehicles and other data; for rental passenger cars, leased passenger cars, and other vehicles not subject to fixed points and routes, it is recommended that, considering the charging demands in time and space, more piles be erected in the downtown areas, such as transportation hubs, business centers and other areas; for private cars, it is recommended to make up the shortcomings for charging infrastructure at the UPOR under the mode of “one pile for several vehicles while sharing” for economical purpose. In addition, private cars have a higher demand for charging at nighttime and for charging convenience in UPOR, making it necessary to set more charging infrastructure near the frequently parking locations.