Sensitisation of Disaster Relief Operations Towards Persons with Disabilities

Abstract

Persons with disabilities (PWDs) often face societal exclusion, particularly during disasters when communities become more vulnerable and reliant on external assistance. PWDs, who are already at higher risk, experience heightened challenges. They usually rely on caregivers, such as family, neighbours, or government support, for daily assistance. However, even these support networks become vulnerable when disasters strike, increasing dependence on government and external relief. During times of disasters, the process of evacuating individuals to relief camps establishes reciprocal relationships between PWDs and relief providers. In the realm of disaster management, Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) go beyond being passive recipients; they actively contribute to rescue missions alongside their families. Particularly in Sri Lanka, where advanced tools for those with mobility impairments are scarce, PWDs take on a hands-on role. They guide support providers lacking specific rescue training, offering instructions on how to assist and meet their support expectations. This active participation exemplifies what we term ‘reciprocal relationships between PWDs and relief providers.’ This mutual support is of paramount importance since the entire population is deemed at risk, and collaborative efforts significantly boost the efficiency of evacuation endeavours and the provision of support services. However, it is essential to acknowledge the distinctive vulnerabilities and interdependencies present within the disability community. This recognition emphasises the critical necessity for inclusive disaster preparedness measures. While prior studies have addressed the vulnerabilities of PWDs during and after disasters, a critical knowledge gap exists in understanding these issues in Sri Lanka. This chapter investigates the challenges of PWDs during and after disasters, explores the difficulties of service providers in assisting PWDs, and emphasises the need for inclusive disaster preparedness, highlighting the significance and role of social workers in emergencies in Sri Lanka. The study utilised a qualitative research design, conducting twenty in-depth interviews in two disaster-prone districts in Sri Lanka, Kandy, and Kegalle. The findings reveal that PWDs face a range of challenges, such as limited access to information, inaccessible shelters, transportation barriers, loss of assistive devices, and insufficient healthcare access. The Framework for Integrating Rights and Equality (FIRE) offers crucial recommendations to comprehensively address these issues. Service providers, confronted with resource constraints, accessibility problems, communication barriers, inadequate training, low trust levels, and policy gaps, must integrate these principles for improved disaster preparedness and response. This involves prioritising resource allocation, enhancing accessibility, improving communication, investing in training, fostering trust, and addressing policy gaps, aiming to create a more inclusive and resilient system that better serves the needs of PWDs during emergencies and identifies the importance and role of social workers in emergencies in Sri Lanka.

1 Introduction

Sri Lanka, a small island nation in the Indian Ocean with an area of 65,000 km², boasts a wet and warm climate that was once blanketed by lush forests, rich in biodiversity. Despite significant deforestation, the country’s abundant natural resources and diverse cultural heritage support a thriving tourism industry. With a population of approximately 22 million, Sri Lanka’s multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society adds to its cultural vibrancy. Nevertheless, the nation’s vulnerability to climate change is amplified by its high temperatures, complex hydrological system, and exposure to extreme climate events.¹ The more significant hazards experienced include floods, cyclones/high winds, droughts, landslides, and lightning.²

Sri Lanka has been increasingly affected by climate-induced disasters, resulting in significant economic and social losses. For instance, in 2017, devastating floods and landslides caused several fatalities and displaced half a million people.³ In 2023, the United Nations Climate Impact Fact Sheet highlighted Sri Lanka’s high vulnerability to climate change. Despite its relatively elevated Human Development Index compared to numerous other developing nations, the country consistently ranks among the top ten at risk of extreme weather events according to the Global Climate Risk Index.⁴ Sri Lanka faces recurrent climate vulnerabilities, marked by excessive rainfall and frequent droughts. These droughts can be categorised into meteorological droughts, which are linked to reduced precipitation, and hydrological droughts, resulting from diminished surface and sub-surface water flows.⁵ The impacts of these droughts ripple across various domains, affecting development, water resources, agriculture, and land management practices. As a result, these vulnerabilities exacerbate livelihood challenges, poverty levels, and overall public health within the country. The 2021 Climate Risk Country Profile from the World Bank underscores Sri Lanka’s significant exposure to extreme heat, with particular consequences for urban outdoor labourers who work in demanding conditions.⁶ Communities in vulnerable areas, especially in the northern regions, face heightened risks, which harm farmers, household food security, and the tourism sector.⁷

Moreover, projections indicate an amplified threat due to a lack of adaptive measures, leading to more frequent and intense extreme precipitation events. This escalation heightens vulnerability, impacting individuals, livelihoods, and infrastructure, and fostering waterborne disease transmission, ultimately exacerbating poverty and inequality. The diverse array of disasters occurring throughout the year in Sri Lanka impacts different segments of the population in varying ways, dependent on their level of vulnerability. The consequences of climate change and disasters reverberate across multiple sectors, influencing agriculture production, water management, energy generation, food security, and public health.⁸

Some studies indicate that climate change tends to disproportionately affect the most economically disadvantaged groups.⁹ For instance, heavy manual labourers are highly vulnerable to productivity losses due to heat stress. The extent of the impact and the coping strategies employed by individuals are strongly influenced by various factors, including socio-economic status, household composition, disability, socio-cultural norms, access to resources, poverty, and gender.

Research has also demonstrated that the effects of disasters are not gender-neutral, with women and children constituting some of the most at-risk groups. Gender-based differences in time use, access to assets and credit, treatment by formal institutions, limited participation in policy discussions and decision-making, and the absence of sex-disaggregated data for policy changes all contribute to this differential impact. Given the non-neutral nature of disaster impacts, it is imperative to assess social vulnerabilities within communities, especially among specific populations such as individuals with disabilities.¹⁰

A recent multi-dimensional vulnerability study revealed that households with Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) exhibit significantly higher vulnerability, with 60.4% classified as vulnerable compared to 54.4% among households without PWDs.¹¹ In other words, this Multi-dimensional Vulnerability Index (MVI) assigns numerical values to vulnerability, and in this context, households with Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) have a higher MVI (0.229) than those without PWDs (0.200). This indicates that households who had PWDs face elevated vulnerability across various dimensions. The notable contrast in vulnerability rates highlights the substantial impact of disability on overall vulnerability. This emphasises the necessity for comprehensive policies and support systems to effectively address the challenges encountered by households with PWDs. In fact these findings underscore the fact that inclusive policy measures and robust social protection systems will help combat this deep impact of disability on overall vulnerability. These measures should prioritise enhancing livelihood opportunities for PWDs and their families, fostering inclusivity and equity within society.¹²

These existing researches do not adequately address the crucial aspects of enhancing resilience among PWDs. Specifically, the collection of sex/age/disability-disaggregated data to inform better planning, resource allocation, and the targeting of service delivery for PWDs, ensuring their full social and economic participation, remains underexplored. Additionally, there is a lack of investigation into the development of tailored programmes that facilitate PWDs’ access to employment opportunities in both the public and private sectors, as well as their engagement in policy formation.

Therefore, it is imperative to map the vulnerabilities of PWDs during and after disasters, identify the challenges encountered by service providers in disaster preparedness and relief programmes, and analyse the role of socio-cultural factors in promoting sensitisation and the development of an inclusive framework. This research encompasses all five phases of emergency management, including prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.

This chapter explores avenues for sensitising disaster relief operations towards Persons with Disabilities in Sri Lanka during and immediately after disasters. Focussing on the sensitivity of service personnel, the study maps various vulnerabilities experienced by PWDs and service providers. The specific sub-objectives of this chapter include:

• Investigating the challenges faced by PWDs including issues of their mobility during and after disasters.

• Identifying the difficulties and issues encountered by service providers in their interactions with PWDs in the disaster management process.

• Identifying strategies for the inclusion of PWDs in disaster management operations and sensitisation among officials.

• Recognising the role of social workers in facilitating PWDs in disaster management.

This empirical study, conducted using a qualitative research design, was carried out in two critical and disaster-prone districts, Kandy and Kegalle, as identified by the National Building Research Organisation (NBRO)¹³ in Sri Lanka. (Note: The NBRO’s administrative, financial, and managerial functions are managed by the Cabinet-approved Interim Management Committee (IMC), led by the Secretary of the Ministry of Disaster Management. The Director General acts as the organisation’s CEO, overseeing operations in seven key topic areas).

The study involved ten in-depth interviews with PWDs, focusing on the challenges and issues within current disaster relief operations, particularly in the context of evacuation and post-disaster displacement. Adaptations were made to accommodate children with different disabilities and service requirement levels, including the use of lip-reading and sign language professionals for data collection alongside observations. Additionally, ten semi-structured interviews were conducted with professionals actively involved in working with PWDs during disasters in 2022 and 2023. These professionals represented government and non-governmental organisations dedicated to safeguarding the rights of PWDs. Ensuring the rights of Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) holds great significance within the framework of Article 12(2) of the Constitution of Sri Lanka, which explicitly prohibits discrimination against any citizen based on factors such as race, religion, language, caste, sex, political opinion, place of birth, or similar grounds. Organisations are obligated to uphold and safeguard these rights, with a particular emphasis on protecting the rights of PWDs.¹⁴

Furthermore, the Sri Lankan Constitution, specifically Article 12(3), guarantees the rights of PWDs, emphasising the elimination of discrimination in their access to resources. Additionally, they uphold Article 12(3) of the Sri Lankan Constitution, focusing on non-discrimination with respect to access. Moreover, following Article 11 of the National Policy on Disaster Management in Sri Lanka (2013), these organisations advocate for maintaining equity in resource distribution during disasters, prioritising vulnerable groups such as children, differently-abled individuals, senior citizens, and women, among others, based on the severity and vulnerability of the situation. Furthermore, the professionals interviewed represented the Ministry of Disaster Management, the National Building Research Organisation, the Divisional Secretariats of Kegalle and Kandy, We for Rights Organisation, and The Employer’s Federation of Ceylon. The study strictly adhered to research ethics, ensuring data privacy and confidentiality.

This chapter comprises four sections: an introduction, a brief analysis of disaster, disability, and disaster management in Sri Lanka, a presentation of the study results in line with the objectives and discussion, and a concluding section that addresses implications and recommendations.

2 Disaster, Disability, and Disaster Management

Examining the relationship between disasters, disability, disaster management, and Disability-Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction is complex. This complexity is aggravated by the disproportionately severe impact of disasters on economically disadvantaged nations, primarily due to their heavy reliance on natural resources and limited resilience to climate variations and extremes. In this section, we briefly touch upon the terminologies discussed in this chapter.

Disaster is defined as a profound disturbance to a community or societal functioning due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, resulting in losses across various aspects (human, material, economic, and environmental).¹⁵ Disasters can have immediate or widespread impacts, potentially overwhelming a community’s self-reliance and requiring external assistance. As previously mentioned, Sri Lanka is ranked among the top three in the Global Climate Risk Index published by Germanwatch in 2019, with events like floods, landslides, cyclones, and droughts contributing to its status as a multi-hazards hotspot.¹⁶ The UNDP Climate Fact Sheet highlights that climate change poses a significant threat, exacerbating challenges related to food and water availability while diminishing agricultural outputs. The data reveals that 64.4% is attributed to floods, 10.3% to droughts, 3.5% to landslides, and 21.9% to cyclones, all of which have adversely affected the lives and livelihoods of individuals.¹⁷ This has resulted in a decline in well-being, necessitating recovery efforts for housing, land, and climate-induced mobility and settlement for the affected population.¹⁸

Persons with Disabilities are identified as individuals who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments that, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.^19,20 In this chapter, we utilise the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF), a WHO-developed framework offering a universally accepted system to describe and classify health, emphasising the interplay between an individual’s health and their environment. The ICF illustrates the bio-psychosocial model of disability, explaining the interaction between body functions and structure, activity, and participation components. Additionally, it establishes a standard language and conceptual basis for defining and measuring health and disability, guided by four principles: universality, parity, etiological neutrality, and environmental influence.

Disability encompasses not only reduced mobility but also a broader range of conditions, including hearing impairments, visual impairments, intellectual impairments, and various forms of physical disabilities, among others. Regardless of whether a disability is permanent or temporary, PWDs face several challenges, such as mobility problems, visual or auditory impairments, cognitive difficulties, communication barriers, medical issues, and the need for support systems to optimise functioning. They also encounter challenges related to environmental sensitivities, psychiatric disturbances, panic attacks, and infirmity associated with old age (See Footnote 20). PWDs are disproportionately vulnerable during disasters and often face additional challenges, as exemplified by the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, where they received less support and were at a higher risk of violence in shelters.²¹

Disaster management encompasses organisation, planning, and the application of measures for preparing, responding to, and recovering from disasters.²² Disaster risk reduction aims to prevent, reduce, and manage disaster risk, enhancing resilience and sustainable development.²³ Disability-Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction (DiDRR) is a human rights-driven approach with the overarching goal of ensuring equitable access for individuals with disabilities to community-level Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) efforts.²⁴ By fostering collaboration between emergency management and community service sectors, along with the active involvement of people with disabilities and their representatives at the local level, DiDRR strives to enhance the resilience of individuals with disabilities in the face of disasters. It seeks to integrate their needs and rights into broader disaster management and risk reduction strategies, making these efforts more comprehensive and equitable. The DiDRR recognises that people with disabilities are often at heightened risk during disasters and aims to address these vulnerabilities, ultimately contributing to the development of more resilient and inclusive communities.²⁵

In this scenario, before assessing the need for prioritisation among relief personnel, it is essential to examine the current legal and policy measures to determine the extent to which the protection of PWDs is mandated and prioritised within the existing disaster management frameworks.

3 Disaster Management: Governing Policies and Frameworks

Disaster management activities in Sri Lanka primarily revolve around the government sector, making it the key stakeholder. Despite this central role, the system is effectively decentralised, with interventions extending from the smallest unit, such as the Grama Niladari division, to provincial and national levels. The involvement of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and community-based organisations is widespread, providing substantial support for various activities. Government officials play a pivotal role in overseeing and monitoring these activities. Therefore, in Sri Lanka, the government is considered the primary stakeholder in disaster management and resilience. Sri Lanka has established a comprehensive set of laws, policies, and frameworks to address issues related to disasters, disabilities, and climate change. These efforts align with international conventions and treaties aimed at creating a disaster risk-free environment for communities and building resilience.

Concerning PWDs, notably, Sri Lanka is a signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities (UNCRPD). Furthermore, Article 12 of the Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka enshrines the right to equality and protection against discrimination as fundamental rights, providing a basis for safeguarding the rights of individuals with disabilities.²⁶

The Protection of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, No. 28 of 1996 in Sri Lanka, which predates the CRPD by a decade, holds significance in addressing discrimination against individuals with disabilities.²⁷ However, it exhibits several limitations when it comes to safeguarding the rights and welfare of this vulnerable population within disaster contexts. The Act has not evolved to encompass contemporary international standards and best practices, particularly those reflected in the CRPD. While the Act rightly focuses on combating discrimination in areas such as employment and access to educational institutions, it inadequately addresses disaster preparedness, which is specifically addressed at Article 11 CRPD. The Act lacks comprehensive disaster-related provisions and does not explicitly mention disaster risk reduction (DRR) or measures aimed at reducing the vulnerabilities of Persons with Disabilities to disasters. There is no clear guidance on how to integrate Disability- Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction (DiDRR) into the existing legal framework, leaving a gap in the protection of this group in the event of disasters. To rectify this, legal and policy reforms are imperative. These reforms should align with contemporary international standards, particularly the CRPD, to ensure the inclusivity, accessibility, and overall well-being of individuals with disabilities during disasters, in line with Sri Lanka’s international commitments.

Moreover, Sri Lanka operates within a legal framework for disaster risk management that encompasses several key components, which are outlined below:

• A. Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act, No. 13 of 2005

This Act aims to establish a legal framework for managing disaster risks in Sri Lanka, detailing the legal responsibilities, powers, and functions of the authorities involved in disaster management. The Act establishes the National Council for Disaster Management, District Disaster Management Committees, and Disaster Management Centres. However, the Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act does not specifically address the unique needs and concerns of PWDs.²⁸

• 2 National Policy on Disaster Management 2013

This policy supplements the Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act and aligns the country’s disaster management efforts with international best practices. It emphasises disaster risk reduction, community participation, gender mainstreaming, and the importance of technological advancements in disaster management. While the policy acknowledges the need for a multi-dimensional approach to disaster management for vulnerable groups (considered an umbrella term covering women, children, and disabled people, as well as the elderly), it doesn’t explicitly elaborate on how the concerns of PWDs will be addressed.²⁹

• 3 Institutional Disaster Management Plan 2022–2030

Crafted to address distinct disaster management requirements in educational institutions, this plan delineates preparedness, response, and recovery measures to guarantee the safety of students and staff during disasters. Additionally, it offers guidelines for preparation applicable to all ministries, government institutions, departments, and agencies. Yet, it does not provide specific provisions for PWDs in educational settings.³⁰

• 4 National Disaster Management Plan 2019–2030

In Sri Lanka, various legal frameworks, including the 2005 Disaster Management Act, have played a crucial role in disaster risk management. The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) (2013–2017) aimed at minimising disaster impact but lacked specific measures for PWDs. Similarly, the National Emergency Operation Plan 2013–2017 prioritised coordination but again lacked PWD-specific provisions. The Sri Lanka Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (SLCDMP) (2014–2018) aimed at enhancing safety but did not fully address concerns of PWDs. The National Disaster Management Plan 2019–2030 now takes precedence, highlighting the need to update approaches in line with current priorities and challenges.

The National Disaster Management Plan strives to significantly increase the adoption of national and local DRR strategies following the Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR).³¹ It encompasses all aspects of disaster risk reduction, placing a strong emphasis on localising DRR strategies by 2020 to align with the SFDRR and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.³² The plan establishes precise objectives, goals, indicators, and timeframes aimed at preventing, reducing, and enhancing resilience against disaster risks. Furthermore, it plays a crucial role in monitoring the progress of these policies and plans, particularly in supporting local governments in their formulation and execution.³³ It is worth noting however that the text does not explicitly mention provisions for persons with disabilities (PWDs), even though Paragraph 19(d) of the SFDRR expressly calls for addressing their specific situation. Nevertheless, the plan likely contributes to Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) by localising strategies and bolstering resilience at the community level, aligning with the priorities outlined in the SFDRR.³⁴

The National-level Disaster Management Plan in Sri Lanka operates across various levels, employing a multi-tiered approach to address diverse aspects of disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. This plan involves coordination and collaboration among national, provincial, and district-level institutions/agencies, showcasing a vertical integration of disaster management efforts.

Vertical Disaster Management Planning in Sri Lanka refers to hierarchical coordination and collaboration across different administrative levels, from the national government down to the provincial, district, divisional, Grama Niladari (Head of the Village), and community levels. This approach ensures that disaster management strategies and activities are aligned with the specific needs and conditions of each administrative unit, representing various sectors such as health, agriculture, water, and livelihood.

Horizontal Disaster Management Planning involves collaboration and coordination across various sectors, organisations, and stakeholders at the same administrative level. In Sri Lanka, this includes the involvement of multiple agencies and organisations working at the national, provincial, and district levels to collectively deliver various services during disasters.

This multi-level and collaborative approach in disaster management planning allows for a more comprehensive and responsive strategy to address the diverse challenges posed by disasters in Sri Lanka, taking into account both the administrative hierarchy and the need for cross-sectoral collaboration. Implementation of Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) in Sri Lanka is commendable, responding effectively to the escalating frequency of disasters. Acknowledged as a key strategy for bolstering community capacity and resilience, CBDRM is making positive strides. However, it is crucial to highlight the lack of specific details concerning the mechanisms of community involvement, underscoring the need for a thorough examination of the authenticity and depth of community participation in the decision-making processes. Additionally, the level of collaboration with other stakeholders remains unclear and raises questions about the effectiveness of a multi-stakeholder approach for comprehensive disaster risk management. While the expansion of CBDRM coverage to additional districts is viewed positively, there is a call for a rigorous assessment of the sustainability and scalability of these initiatives to gauge their long-term impact. In essence, despite recognising the positive trajectory, it is imperative to address specific aspects such as community involvement, stakeholder collaboration, and sustainability to ensure the continued effectiveness of CBDRM in Sri Lanka.

The discussion on disability in Sri Lanka involves various models such as the charity, medical, social, and rights-based models. A recent study on Human Rights Status of Persons with Disabilities concluded that persons with disabilities in Sri Lanka surface from a complex interface between widespread structural factors like health conditions, social factors, living situations, and the misapprehension in the thinking on the part of society.³⁵ Therefore, the dimensions included social justice, health care, and the human rights of those with impairments. The rights-based model, centred on fundamental human rights, strives for universal application, ensuring the protection of rights for persons with disabilities globally. This approach influences attitudes, environments, and organisational practices to promote equal rights for all individuals, including those with disabilities. In the context of increased health risks for persons with disabilities, a Human Rights-Based Approach (HRBA) becomes crucial in disaster relief efforts, aiming to safeguard the human rights of affected individuals.

The application of Disability-Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction (DiDRR) in Sri Lanka faces several challenges.³⁶ While awareness is growing, practical implementation remains a challenge. Some existing policies and legal provisions support the rights of PWDs’ but lack integration with broader disaster risk reduction strategies. Capacity building, collaboration, community engagement, data collection, and research are essential areas that require improvement. Emergency preparedness and response plans need to be made disability-inclusive, and adequate funding and resources must be allocated. The ultimate goal of DiDRR is to enhance the resilience of individuals with disabilities, both physically and socio-economically, to address the long-term challenges they face in the aftermath of disasters. Addressing these aspects is pivotal in nurturing a more inclusive and equitable society in Sri Lanka.

Despite progress in recognising the importance of disaster management in Sri Lanka, there remain areas requiring improvement, including policy integration, capacity building, collaboration, community engagement, data collection, and ensuring fully inclusive emergency preparedness and response measures. The study explores the experience of persons with disabilities during disasters from a human rights-based perspective and advocates for increased awareness and sensitivity among relief personnel to address these challenges. The prevalence of disabilities in Sri Lanka, attributed to prolonged conflict and an ageing demographic, underscores the need for protective measures, urging a shift towards a more inclusive and equitable society. Marginalisation of individuals with disabilities, especially in disaster situations, exacerbates their vulnerability, emphasising the importance of adopting a human rights-based approach. The existing support system, often reliant on families, needs enhancement through sensitisation and structural improvements across all phases of disaster management. An inclusive approach should transcend physical barriers, addressing attitudinal and structural obstacles that contribute to the vulnerability and exclusion of persons with disabilities. Integrating human rights principles is essential to construct a comprehensive and equitable framework for disaster response in Sri Lanka. In conclusion, the qualitative data analysis underscores the areas requiring attention for the effective implementation of Disability Inclusive Disaster Management and Risk Reduction in Sri Lanka.³⁷

4 Study Results: Mapping Vulnerabilities of Persons with Disabilities and Challenges Faced by Service Providers in Disasters

The primary objective of this chapter is to enhance the comprehension of the significance of addressing the rights of PWDs in disaster contexts. The subsequent sections will present the findings of our study, followed by a discussion offering insights into different facets and outcomes of the research.

Employing an interpretivist ontological stance, this qualitative research was undertaken in two critically disaster-prone districts, namely Kandy and Kegalle, as identified by the National Building Research Organisation (NBRO) under the Ministry of Disaster Management. Ten in-depth interviews were conducted with persons with disabilities (PWDs), focussing on challenges and issues within current disaster relief operations, particularly in the context of evacuation and post-disaster displacement. An interview guide was utilised for conducting semi-structured interviews with professionals actively engaged in working with PWDs and individuals with various disabilities and their caregivers who experienced emergencies during disasters in 2022 and 2023. Thematic analysis was employed for data analysis, ensuring adherence to research ethics, as well as maintaining data privacy and confidentiality.

In this section, we delve into the multi-faceted challenges faced by PWDs in various stages of disaster management, specifically focusing on evacuation and protection during and after displacement. The insights drawn from in-depth interviews and observations of ten PWDs in the Kandy and Kegalle districts are thematically presented to provide a nuanced understanding of these challenges. The following narratives, each encapsulating a distinct seven sub-theme structure, are intertwined with their life experiences.

Exploring the theme of inadequate access to information and warning systems, a 45-year-old man with visual impairment, impacted by flooding, shared the challenges arising from insufficiently accessible warning messages:

In the recent flood in Kegalle, my family received warning messages on their phones. But they were only text or pictures. So, I didn’t know what was going on. I knew when someone told me, and there was very little time to get ready to leave.

This narrative vividly illustrates the impact of information disparities during disasters, negatively affecting equal access to timely and relevant information for all. Similarly, a 25-year-old woman with hearing impairment recounted her displacement experience, shedding light on inaccessible shelters and relief services and inadequate facilities:

Due to the flood, we lost everything, and we only had a few clothes and a blanket. We were taken to a nearby temple, which served as an emergency shelter. Despite the presence of several officers and volunteers, there was no sign language interpreter available. This made it difficult for me to effectively communicate my needs and wants. The unsympathetic treatments I received and the isolation made me feel ignored most of the time.

This emphasises the urgent need for inclusive shelter facilities, invoking principles of non-discrimination and removing social exclusion. Furthermore, discussing limited mobility, transportation, and evacuation barriers, a 30-year-old woman with a physical impairment recounted the challenges faced during evacuation:

During the flood evacuation, I couldn’t get to the temple because there were no ramps. I had to depend on others to carry me up the stairs, which was scary. Temples are often used as temporary shelters for displaced people, but they’re usually on hills with lots of stairs and no ramps. So, I had to be carried on people’s shoulders, and it sometimes felt bad to inconvenience others because of the lack of facilities.

This narrative indicates the relationship between poverty and poor physical infrastructure inadequacies and aligns with accessibility concerns. Additionally, a 40-year-old woman with physical/mobility impairment discussed the repercussions of loss or damage of assistive devices:

Due to the landslide, the whole house faded away. My wheelchair also got damaged. Now I have to wait until someone gives me a new one because the earlier one was also a gift from someone. We don’t have enough income to buy a new one or even to repair the damaged one.

This indicates the economic vulnerability of PWDs, emphasising the need for more comprehensive support systems in Sri Lanka. Highlighting the theme of access to health care and medication, the mother of a 12-year-old child with a neurological disability expressed concerns about providing medication during disaster emergencies:

Due to disaster emergencies, we were asked to go to a safer place. My son, who is disabled, requires daily medication for his epileptic condition. During the first two days of the flooding and in the community centre, I had great fear in my mind about the kid as I couldn’t give him medicine properly for his medical conditions.

This not only points to the medical vulnerabilities of PWDs but also draws attention to disparities in healthcare accessibility during crises.

Moreover, a 23-year-old woman with a locomotor disability expressed the absence of adequate disaster preparedness training:

We have never been to a training program for disaster preparedness or how to act when there is an emergency. I have heard that there were some meetings for the community in Aranayake in the community centre, educating them on how to get ready when there is a warning for the disaster.

This highlights the oversight in community training programmes and aligns with the necessity for inclusive preparedness initiatives. In the context of social isolation and stigmatisation, a woman aged 42 with locomotor disability in Aranayake emphasised the emotional impact of post-disaster treatment:

Although the people who arrive to help us evacuate are really helpful, we are treated like objects and are not given any consideration after the disaster has passed. We will never accept the way we were treated.

This narrative elucidates how social isolation and stigma permeate the post-disaster environment, affecting the emotional well-being of PWDs.

Furthermore, a 52-year-old man in Kadugannawa, Kandy, shed light on the economic challenges faced by PWDs, highlighting economic vulnerability and increasing dependency:

Not like normal people, we always have difficulties finding employment. When we were displaced due to the disaster, I lost my job and now find it difficult to find a new source of income.

This narrative intertwines economic vulnerabilities with employment discrimination, emphasising the need for inclusive economic policies. Lastly, a 32-year-old caregiver in Kegalle discussed the overwhelming responsibilities and emotional toll:

I am looking after my disabled mother due to occupational hazards. Now, again, nature is beating us. Earlier, I did a part-time job and worked as a nanny. Now, due to this displacement, I lost my job and needed to take care of my mom also.

This narrative delves into the psychological and emotional implications of disasters on caregivers, emphasising the need for holistic support systems and mental health considerations. Overall, the challenges encountered by PWDs during and after disasters transcend practical impediments, delving into societal perceptions and human rights principles. An all-encompassing disaster management approach must not only address physical barriers/mobility issues but also confront attitudinal and structural obstacles that contribute to the vulnerability and exclusion of PWDs. This necessitates a profound understanding that merges sociological insights with human rights principles, forging a more equitable and inclusive disaster response framework. The narratives vividly illustrate the myriad challenges faced by PWDs and their families, post-disaster. To effectively address these challenges, a holistic and inclusive approach to disaster management and preparedness is indispensable. Moreover, this underscores the urgency of implementing inclusive policies, providing comprehensive training, and fostering heightened societal awareness to strengthen the well-being and resilience of persons with disabilities in the aftermath of disasters. Integrating these diverse perspectives has the potential to transform and improve the effectiveness of disaster response frameworks, promoting inclusivity and equity.

In addressing the second objective of identifying challenges faced by service providers in interactions with PWDs during disaster management, qualitative data from interviews with officials and service providers in Kandy and Kegalle reveal a spectrum of issues. Viewed through sociological, human rights-based, and disability lenses, these challenges highlight critical aspects of disaster response, encompassing gaps in training, resource limitations, accessibility issues, lack of inclusive facilities, communication barriers, lack of preparedness, regulatory constraints, community conflicts, mistrust, and a focus on other priorities during disasters.

According to a Disaster Relief Service Officer at the Divisional Secretariat in Kegalle, resource constraints impact the equal treatment of PWDs in IDP camps, emphasising compromised dignity and detrimental effects on their health.

Temporary shelters/camps provide the bare minimum of amenities due to financial constraints. The government’s distribution is limited to medicine and dry rations, making it challenging to cater to the specific needs of PWDs. We find it difficult to pay attention to their particular requirements. In these shelters, temporary washrooms are entirely inaccessible for PWDs, forcing them and their family members to seek alternative methods of support. Unfortunately, this compromises their dignity and has a detrimental impact on the personalities and overall health of young individuals.

The Assistant Director, NBRO, Kegalle, portrayed the difficulties of accessibility in evacuation centres, situated on historical sites with limited modifications possible.

Imagine someone stuck on a mountain; removing them would be challenging and pose a significant physical risk. We typically use community centers or religious locations as evacuation centers for internally displaced people. In Sri Lanka, many temples are on hills with multiple staircases, presenting difficulties for wheelchair users and those with mobility impairments due to the lack of access, including ramps and elevators. Some of these sites are historical and recognized as UNESCO Heritage sites, making it impossible to modify the temporary shelters or temple spaces. PWDs must wait until the situation stabilizes, or we can relocate them to a more accessible place. However, it’s challenging because only a few people are trained, and they must efficiently manage a large number of voluntary workers.

The narrative exemplifies the reduction of mobility rights for PWDs due to challenges like the lack of ramps and elevators. Another Disaster Relief Service Officer, this time from Kandy and Kegalle emphasised communication barriers during disasters, underscoring the vital role of sign language interpreters for effective support.

As disaster relief officers, we strive to make a difference, but we often lack the training and resources to support PWDs effectively. In a recent disaster, we experienced the importance of sign language interpreters. Without them, communicating with individuals with hearing impairment was a challenge we want to avoid in the future. We value inclusivity but face hurdles when the system lacks essential tools and support. As a center manager, it’s disheartening to witness their frustration due to communication and support gaps.

The manager expressed the disheartening aspect of witnessing frustration due to communication gaps. A volunteer trained by the Disaster Management Centre in Kegalle shed light on the inadequacy of training and experiences, narrating the challenging situation of caring for a visually impaired person in an IDP camp.

In the Aranayake IDP camp, I had to care for a visually impaired person. Despite the stress, I had no prior training or updated knowledge on handling PWDs. It was a challenging situation, but I felt good that I could help in some way.

The Assistant Director, NBRO, Kandy, also discussed the issue of low trust and misunderstanding, pointing out the hesitation of PWDs to trust officials due to past negative experiences.

Often, right after a disaster, the community and volunteers assist along with officials. However, I’ve noticed that sometimes PWDs hesitate to trust us or prefer assistance from others due to past negative experiences. Overcoming this lack of trust or resistance can be challenging. Mostly, military and religious leaders lead immediate evacuation and provide informal relief services, potentially leading to low trust among people from different cultures and ethnicities.

The Director further highlighted the influence of military and religious leaders in immediate evacuation, potentially leading to low trust among diverse communities. A Director of Planning at the Ministry of Disaster Management acknowledged the challenges of focusing on saving lives and preventing property damage during disasters, potentially overshadowing the needs of PWDs. The constraints of government rules and regulations were expressed, with officials making rapid decisions to address urgent needs, sometimes leading to subsequent questioning.

As government officials, we are bound by rules and regulations in our work. At times, we make rapid decisions to assist people and address urgent needs, but this may lead to subsequent questioning, providing valuable lessons. Due to these factors, some officials avoid pushing their boundaries.

Another Assistant Director, this time from the NBRO emphasised the lack of preparedness, highlighting deficiencies in essential resources, accessible vehicles, and disaster warnings for the visually impaired.

Despite recurring disasters each year, we still lack essential resources. We don’t have wheelchair-accessible vehicles, only a Suvasaiya ambulance when needed. There are no braille or embossed system-supported disaster warnings for the visually impaired and identified disaster risk areas like Kegalle lack improvised community centers as temporary shelters or multi-functional facilities. In terms of training and resources, I believe we remain unprepared.

A representative from the We for Rights Organisation outlined societal pressures, acknowledging prevalent nepotism and the need to prioritise specific groups over persons with disabilities.

In our society, nepotism is prevalent. We often face pressure to prioritize specific groups, as per the directives of local politicians and influential factions. Sometimes, we must give precedence to vulnerable groups over persons with disabilities.

Finally, the Director of Planning at the Ministry of Disaster Management emphasised the policy-implementation gap, noting that despite existing guidelines and norms, the system often neglects the voices of grassroot-level workers and those in need.

While comprehensive guidelines and internationally-aligned norms exist in our policies, the real challenge lies in implementation. The system predominantly operates from the top-down, often neglecting the voices of those in need and ground-level workers.

This situation highlights a clear policy-implementation gap and a lack of inclusiveness. These challenges bring attention to the complex interplay of social structures affecting disaster response. Training gaps, resource constraints, and accessibility issues signal broader systemic flaws entwined with societal norms. Specifically, using a structural–functional approach helps understand issues like nepotism and prioritising certain groups, shedding light on the wider social context influencing decision-making in hierarchical cultures like Sri Lanka.

The challenges also point to potential violations of the rights of PWDs, especially in terms of dignity, equal treatment, and access to crucial services. The narrative of compromised dignity and health effects due to resource limitations in IDP camps stresses the urgent need for a rights-based perspective in disaster management.

Furthermore, these challenges uncover persistent barriers limiting the full inclusion of PWDs in disaster response. Issues like the lack of ramps, elevators, inaccessible washrooms, and communication gaps collectively infringe upon the mobility and communication rights of PWDs. This underscores the crucial necessity of integrating disability-inclusive strategies into disaster planning and response efforts.

5 Way Forward: Strategies for the Inclusion of PWDs in Disaster Management and Role of Social Workers

The qualitative data illustrates the escalating vulnerability of both the general public and PWDs during disasters, with PWDs facing heightened risks. This underscores the pressing need for inclusivity in disaster relief operations to uphold their rights, dignity, and overall well-being. Despite Sri Lanka’s existing disaster management plan partially aligning with international standards, it operates hierarchically and lacks provisions for the inclusion of PWDs, neglecting the safeguarding of their human rights and well-being.

The study reveals numerous challenges faced by PWDs and service providers in disaster scenarios, prompting proposed strategies with a bottom-up approach as suggested by the researched community. Macro-level strategies involve policy revision through a bottom-up approach, annual policy reviews, thorough post-disaster source analysis, bi-annual evaluation and policy amendments, and adopting modern technology for PWD communication. Mezzo-level strategies include connecting village committees to district disaster officials and DMC coordinators, enhancing service provider coordination, and providing training for divisional and district officers. Micro-level strategies encompass empowering village groups to support PWDs, offering training on PWD evacuation (including swimming for some PWDs) and camp management, planning early, mapping PWDs, identifying shelters, providing PWD self-advocacy and disability training, and conducting sensitisation campaigns to raise awareness, such as emphasising that disability is not fate or doom but a matter of human rights for all.

Drawing from a comprehensive field study conducted within the country, in this sub-section, we delve into the multi-faceted role that social workers play in promoting inclusivity, and equity, and upholding the rights of PWDs. The subsequent section delineates the multi-faceted role of social workers in disaster management.

Social workers play a crucial role in promoting inclusivity for Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) in various ways. Their role begins with identifying PWDs within affected communities and delving deep into their specific needs, vulnerabilities, and preferences within the unique context of the island nation. They meticulously explore various aspects, including understanding the types of disabilities prevalent, mobility constraints faced, communication requirements essential for effective interaction, and the existing support networks that can be leveraged for assistance. They are instrumental in identifying and assessing PWDs, using tools like the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health or the ICF model to understand their specific needs, vulnerabilities, and preferences. Additionally, social workers advocate for the rights of PWDs, raise awareness, and actively promote non-discrimination and equal access in disaster management contexts. For instance, they collaborate with local communities and relief service providers to ensure that PWDs have equal access to disaster-related services and resources, drawing from their expertise in navigating the diverse cultural landscape of Sri Lanka.

Currently, capacity-building efforts for PWDs are undertaken by individuals lacking proper training, such as officers in district secretariats, NGOs, and community workers. In this context, it is social workers who emphatically contribute by providing comprehensive training programmes for both PWDs and service providers, equipping them with essential knowledge and skills. They ensure that PWDs can access disaster-related information in accessible formats like sign language, braille, or audio.

Working closely with PWDs, social workers craft individualised support plans that cater to the unique requirements of each individual. They ensure access to evacuation strategies that are adapted to Sri Lanka’s geographical and infrastructural considerations. This may involve providing mobility aids, arranging accessible transportation options, and addressing specific medical needs based on Sri Lanka’s healthcare infrastructure. By translating messages into accessible formats, such as sign language, braille, or audio, social workers help in addressing the language diversity and accessibility requirements of different communities across the island and make it possible for PWDs to have easy access to important information regarding disasters.

Beyond just addressing practical needs, social workers also extend psychosocial support to help PWDs cope with the emotional and psychological challenges they may face during disasters. In Sri Lanka, which has a history of natural disasters and internal conflicts, these efforts are crucial in helping individuals overcome trauma and distress effectively. Social workers act as intermediaries between the PWDs and relief agencies, ensuring that service providers are well-informed about the specific needs of PWDs and effectively coordinate necessary services. They establish feedback mechanisms to capture inputs from PWDs and their caregivers. This feedback loop is invaluable in Sri Lanka’s context for continuous service improvement and responsiveness to the evolving needs of the affected population. Furthermore, social workers engage in research to gain insights into the experiences of PWDs during disasters within the Sri Lankan context. These findings help shape evidence-based strategies and policies that enhance inclusivity and better safeguard the rights of PWDs in disaster management, aligning with Sri Lanka’s unique socio-cultural fabric.

6 Conclusion and Recommendations

The findings of this study shed light on the complex challenges faced by PWDs during disaster management, emphasising the need for a comprehensive and inclusive approach. The qualitative data reveals a multi-faceted landscape, encompassing issues such as limited access to information, mobility constraints, loss of assistive devices, and inaccessible shelters for PWDs. Moreover, challenges faced by service providers, including inadequate training, resource constraints, and communication barriers, further complicate the already intricate dynamics of disaster response.

These challenges underscore the complex web of social structures and norms influencing disaster response. The hierarchical nature of the disaster management system in Sri Lanka, coupled with issues like nepotism and prioritisation of specific groups, reflects the broader social context impacting decision-making. Adopting a structural–functional approach helps unravel these complexities, emphasising the systemic shortcomings that intersect with societal norms and poor infrastructures and expertise. The concept of ‘ableism’ becomes highly relevant here in explaining why adequate measures were not adopted to address the situation of PWDs during the evacuation. Ableism, which involves discrimination and prejudice against people with disabilities, helps frame the discussion in terms of societal attitudes and biases that contribute to the marginalisation of PWDs in disaster contexts.

Moreover, the challenges highlight potential violations of the rights of PWDs, particularly in terms of dignity, equal treatment, and access to essential services. The narratives vividly illustrate how resource constraints in IDP camps compromise dignity and contribute to detrimental health effects, emphasising the urgent need for a rights-based perspective in disaster management. Overall, this study reveals persistent barriers limiting the full inclusion and participation of PWDs in disaster response. The lack of ramps, elevators, inaccessible washrooms, and communication gaps collectively infringe upon the mobility and communication rights of PWDs. These barriers underscore the importance of incorporating disability-inclusive strategies into disaster planning and response efforts.

In conclusion, the challenges encountered by persons with disabilities during disasters, such as limited access to information, mobility constraints, loss of assistive devices, and inaccessible shelters, demand urgent attention for the advancement of equity and inclusivity in disaster relief efforts. Simultaneously, officials and service providers engaged in disaster relief confront obstacles like inadequate training, resource constraints, and limited accessibility, impeding their effectiveness in assisting PWDs. Addressing these challenges necessitates a comprehensive, rights-based, and inclusive disaster management approach, focusing on the specific needs of PWDs to ensure their inclusion, dignity, and well-being. Urgently required is extensive training in disaster relief programmes, covering all planning phases with a specific emphasis on evacuation and displacement. The neglect of these specific needs perpetuates the vulnerability of PWDs, constituting a violation of their human rights and reinforcing societal stereotypes. As a signatory to international agreements recognising the rights of PWDs, Sri Lanka bears the responsibility to protect and promote these rights, particularly in the context of disaster management. The active participation of affected communities, including PWDs, in decision-making and preparedness is essential, emphasising greater inclusion and consideration of their unique needs in disaster mitigation projects. The study underscores the importance of fostering self-reliance and life skills among PWDs to enable them to protect themselves during disasters. Shifting away from attributing challenges solely to fate and destiny and recognising them as rights violations can lead to more sustainable outcomes for individuals and communities. In summary, a comprehensive and inclusive approach, emphasising empowerment and the recognition of rights, is crucial to addressing disaster-related challenges for PWDs and calls for a paradigm shift in disaster management towards a rights-based approach.

The proposed strategies and recommendations delineated below aim to formulate a more inclusive and resilient disaster response framework, accounting for the distinctive needs of PWDs and other marginalised communities across all phases of disaster management. Recommendations for the Sri Lankan context are rooted in various aspects, including the six dimensions of the Framework for Integrating Rights and Equality (FIRE), the Sendai Framework, and the human rights approach to disasters. These recommendations span three critical phases—pre-disaster, during the disaster, and post-disaster—ensuring effective coordination for a comprehensive disaster response.³⁸

Recommendations

Addressing the specific context of displacement, the following recommendations focus on preparation, protection during evacuation, and durable solutions.

Pre-displacement

Comprehensive Vulnerability Mapping: Conduct thorough vulnerability mapping to identify areas prone to displacement and individuals, with a specific focus on PWDs at higher risk.

Accessible Evacuation Plans: Develop evacuation plans that are accessible and inclusive, considering the unique needs of PWDs, including transportation, communication, and shelter accessibility.

Community-Based Training: Implement community-based training programmes to educate both PWDs and the broader community on evacuation procedures, emphasising inclusive practices.

During Displacement

Specialised Evacuation Support Teams: Establish specialised evacuation support teams trained to assist PWDs, addressing their distinct needs during the evacuation process.

Accessible Shelter Facilities: Ensuring accessible shelter facilities guarantee that temporary shelters are fully accessible for PWDs, equipped with amenities such as ramps, elevators, accessible washrooms, and designated spaces catering to various types of disabilities.

Nevertheless, challenges persist, notably in instances where some evacuation sites, such as temples, are located in elevated areas, making them inherently inaccessible due to various reasons. In such scenarios, it is essential to pre-identify specific locations suitable for PWDs within the community before a disaster occurs. However, these locations should not segregate PWDs from their families, close friends, or the broader community.

Emergency Communication Accessibility: Integrate accessible communication methods, such as sign language interpreters and alternative formats, to ensure crucial information reaches all individuals, irrespective of their abilities.

Post-displacement

Durable Housing Solutions: Prioritise the development of durable housing solutions that consider the long-term needs and accessibility requirements of PWDs, including necessary modifications and accommodations.

Inclusive Livelihood Programmes: Implement programmes that support the economic well-being of displaced PWDs, recognising and accommodating their skills and abilities.

Community Integration Initiatives: Promote initiatives fostering understanding, respect, and support for PWDs to reduce stigma and social isolation post-displacement.

Mental Health Support and Follow-Up: Establish mental health support services addressing the psychological impact of displacement on PWDs and their caregivers, emphasising holistic well-being.

These refined recommendations aim to enhance the preparedness, protection, and post-displacement support tailored to the needs of Persons with Disabilities, ensuring a more inclusive and effective response during and after the displacement process. Rooted in human rights principles, inclusivity, and effective governance, these recommendations strive to create a more equitable and resilient disaster response framework in the Sri Lankan context, with the overarching goal of ‘building back better’ and leaving no one, especially PWDs, behind in the face of adversity.