Methods: Designing Iconographic Research Poetry

Abstract

In this chapter, the author provides a detailed description of the methods that can be used to create and design iconographic research poetry. After exploring the paradigms that inform iconographic research poetry, she offers a step-by-step description of analytic strategies that researchers can use to generate iconographic research poetry from qualitative data. Drawing from the extant literature in qualitative analysis, research poetry, and concrete and iconographic poetry, the author explicates the processes by which qualitative researchers can represent data in the form of iconographic research poetry. She presents three exemplars to illustrate the techniques that she describes. The author concludes the chapter by offering writing exercises designed to encourage readers to experiment with iconographic research poetry.

This chapter provides a detailed description of the methods that can be used to create and design iconographic research poetry. As Butler-Kisber (2010) argued, “It is imperative that researchers try to find ways to share our processes with each other” (p. 95). My goal is to provide an explanation that is clear and complete enough that other researchers can use it to replicate my procedures and apply them to create their own iconographic research poems. However, I do not mean to suggest that my method is the only method or the best method for generating iconographic research poems. Indeed, I would be remiss not to invoke Glesne’s (1997) caveat: “The process described here is not the way to do poetic transcription; rather, it is one way” (p. 205).

I begin this chapter by locating my methodological approach on the qualitative continuum (Ellingson, 2009). Next, I offer a step-by-step description of analytic strategies that researchers can use to generate iconographic research poetry from qualitative data. I rely on qualitative analysis techniques described by scholars such as Charmaz (2006), Ellingson (2009), Lindlof and Taylor (2011), Malvini Redden et al. (2013), Tracy (2013, 2020), and Tracy et al. (2006). Next, I draw from the extant literature in research poetry and poetic inquiry (e.g., Ellingson, 2011; Faulkner, 2009, 2020; Glesne, 1997; Prendergast, 2012), concrete, iconographic, and visual poetry (e.g., Bohn, 2011; Kostelanetz, 1970; Solt, 1968; Swenson, 1970), and concrete and iconographic research poetry (Meyer, 2017; Miller, 2019; Schoone, 2018), to explicate the processes by which qualitative researchers can represent data in the form of iconographic research poetry. I present three exemplars to illustrate the techniques that I describe. At the end of the chapter, I offer writing exercises designed to encourage readers to experiment with iconographic research poetry.

2.1 The Qualitative Continuum

Before launching into a detailed description of the methods used to create iconographic research poetry, I would like to provide some background about the nature of the paradigm, or worldview, that informs my approach. I think of paradigms as meta-theoretical or meta-methodological perspectives shared by a community of scholars. It is important for researchers to contemplate where their research fits within a particular paradigm; in doing so, they may uncover unquestioned assumptions underlying their work.

Over time and across disciplines, methodologists have created different typologies for the paradigms that undergird social science research (e.g., Baxter & Babbie, 2004; Creswell & Poth, 2018; Deetz, 2001; Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Frey et al., 2000; Smith, 1988; Tracy, 2020). These approaches, which include, but are not limited to positivist, postpositivist, interpretivist, critical, and postmodern/-structural perspectives, are often contrasted in terms of assumptions about ontology (the nature of reality), epistemology (ways of knowing), axiology (the role of values in research), and methodology (approaches to conducting research) (Tracy, 2020). Interpretivism, also referred to as naturalism or social constructivism, is the paradigm typically associated with qualitative research, as qualitative researchers are primarily concerned with making sense of participants’ interpretations of their lived experiences (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Naturalism assumes the existence of multiple subjective realities; the interdependent relationship between the researcher and the researched; context-specific, non-causal attributions; and value-bound inquiry (Guba & Lincoln, 1982).

Although some arts-based scholars position ABR as a unique research paradigm (Leavy, 2020), others view it as a point on a continuum that spans diverse approaches to qualitative research that range from science to art (Ellingson, 2009). Given that many of the arts-based tenets identified by Leavy (2020) (i.e., evocation, re(presenting), authenticity, truthfulness, aesthetic power, and resonance) overlap with Tracy’s (2010) criteria for and practices of excellent qualitative research (i.e., sincerity, transparency, crystallization, resonance, aesthetic, evocative representation), arts-based and interpretivist approaches may share too many underlying assumptions to be categorized as distinct paradigms. I contend that Ellingson’s (2009) conceptualization of a qualitative continuum offers a heuristic meta-methodological perspective for arts-based researchers because it offers infinite possibilities for combining science-centered, middle ground, and art-centered approaches within and across nearly all paradigms. Drawing a parallel with Ellingson’s (2009) discussion of crystallization, the only paradigm that does not complement ABR is positivism because of its unwavering pursuit of objective, “ahistorical, unbiased, universal truth” (p. 4). Thus, ABR practices are congruent with postpositivist, interpretive, critical, and postmodern/-structural paradigms. From my standpoint, having moved across the continuum during the course of my career, I have identified with postpositivist, interpretive, critical, and postmodern perspectives. Although I locate iconographic research poetry at the artistic end of the continuum, I recognize that its methodology also reflects middle-ground qualitative/interpretive methods and analyses, as I describe in the next section.

2.2 Analysis

The process of generating iconographic research poetry from qualitative data begins during the analytic process. Although there are diverse approaches to analyzing qualitative data, I recommend conducting an iterative thematic analysis (Tracy, 2013, 2020), followed by a metaphor analysis (Tracy et al., 2006). Drawing upon contemporary versions of grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006; Lindlof & Taylor, 2011), Tracy (2013, 2020) described iterative analysis or phronetic iterative analysis as a cyclical process that alternates between emic and etic coding. In other words, the researcher sorts data into categories that are derived organically (emic), as well as from existing theory and research (etic).

The first step of the analytic process is to immerse oneself in the data: While transcribing interviews, I revel in the opportunity to spend several hours revisiting each conversation that I had with my interviewees. Although some people may perceive this task to be tedious, I believe it is beneficial to relive these conversations because the process brings scholars closer to their participants. In addition, repeatedly listening to audio recordings allows researchers to become more familiar with participants’ speaking style, mannerisms, and colloquialisms (Miller, 2019). Reflecting on one of her research poems, Miller observed: “The speaker’s unique voice—her vernacular syntax and colloquialisms (e.g., “I don’t do no work’; ‘I got me own furniture’) evoke a memorable sense of personality” (p. 19). From the perspective of a communication scholar and research poet, this familiarity is important because it enables the researcher to listen carefully to the rhythm and internal rhymes embedded in participants’ speech—features that are essential notes in the music of poetry. For example, Ellingson (2011) used stylistic repetition of the words “make sure” several times within one research poem to illustrate how dialysis technicians communicate vigilance.

Once I transcribe an interview, I then email the text to the respondent, who verifies its accuracy. Some researchers would argue that this step is unnecessary, but I believe that this type of member check (Ellingson, 2009) is important because it enhances the accuracy of the data by asking respondents to verify that the transcriptions are correct. In addition, it provides an opportunity to ask respondents whether or not they want to use a pseudonym, remove identifiers, edit any statements, or approve any verbatim quotations that will be used in the final paper. During this stage, researchers can also ask participants probes to clarify ambiguous statements. For example, in one research project, I asked a participant to explain whom she meant when she used the referent, “they.” I recommend using different colored fonts to indicate which text is original and which text was added during the member checks.

During the primary stage of analysis, qualitative scholars typically engage in first-level (Tracy, 2013, 2020), initial (Charmaz, 2006), or open coding (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011), which are similar to the emic, or organically derived codes described previously. By combing transcripts line by line or sentence by sentence, researchers can describe the content of the data. Although there are a wide variety of approaches to coding, I typically employ a manual approach, using a pencil to underline statements that reflect Owen’s (1984) criteria of recurrence, repetition, and forcefulness. Next, scholars can use edge-coding, writing notes in the margin to label underlined statements with words that encapsulate the thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that the participants describe. These first-level codes (Tracy, 2013, 2020) are inductively derived and descriptive in nature. For example, in a study that I conducted about single mothers of children with mental illness, I identified ten first-level codes, such as “ex-husband involved” or “ex-husband not involved.”

During the next stage of analysis, qualitative researchers usually engage in second-level (Tracy, 2013, 2020), focused (Charmaz, 2006), or axial coding (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011). These types of coding correspond with etic coding, which derives category labels from pre-existing theories or models, as previously discussed. By organizing primary codes into overarching categories, scholars can begin to analyze and interpret the data in terms of their research questions. Researchers can write analytic comments or memos (Charmaz, 2006; Tracy, 2013, 2020) in order to explore how coding categories relate to one another. In addition, by connecting participants’ statements to relevant scholarly concepts, they can begin to explore how the data are related to the existing body of research. For example, in my study about single mothers, I identified eight second-level codes, such as “courtesy stigma.” I noted that stigma appeared to perpetuate social isolation in single mothers of children with mental illness.

Finally, I recommend conducting a metaphor analysis, which involves sifting through the data to identify metaphors that participants use to frame their experience. Poets (e.g., Oliver, 1994), linguists (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003), and researchers (Malvini Redden et al., 2013; Tracy et al., 2006) have identified linguistic markers that typically signal metaphor and simile use, such as “like” and “as.” By searching for both explicit and implicit references to metaphors and being mindful of dominant cultural metaphors (e.g., the Western idiom “time is money,” described by Lakoff & Johnson, 2003), researchers can identify underlying schemas, or conceptual frameworks, that participants use to make sense of their experience. These root metaphors, then, can provide an alternative lens with which scholars can view their data. For example, Smith and Eisenberg (1987) conducted a classic study of conflict at Disneyland that revealed how employees and management viewed their organization through two competing metaphors, family and drama, which reflected incompatible worldviews. More recently, Malvini Redden et al. (2013) examined metaphors that people with substance use disorders employed as they engaged in sensemaking about medication-assisted treatment. With respect to poetic inquiry, Prendergast (2012) argued that metaphor is an essential element of method. Metaphor analysis is particularly well suited to creating iconographic research poetry because a metaphor can be easily represented with a visual image.

2.3 Representation

After researchers complete the metaphor analysis, they are ready to begin the process of representation. As Ellingson (2009) offered, “producing artistic representations requires analytical thinking, conscious reflection, and strategic choices concerning which details to include, what the artistic account’s purpose and audience are, and what moral or lesson it portrays” (p. 60). My goal as a research poet is to offer the reader an aesthetic and evocative, rather than a solely analytic interpretation of the data. I begin by identifying verbatim quotations from the interview transcriptions that best illustrate the metaphors that I uncovered during my analysis. I heed Ellingson’s (2011) advice to choose excerpts that are also aesthetically appealing (i.e., eloquent and compelling), as well as those which reflect embodied experience (Ellingson, 2017; Faulkner, 2018). For example, in a recent study about the experiences of teaching and learning in an arts-based research class (Meyer, 2023), several students used the journey metaphor to describe their experiences conducting research. I selected the following excerpt to represent the journey metaphor because it had compelling, vivid, embodied language:

It was like climbing small mountains. Each time we would complete a little piece and reach the top of that mountain, we would give each other a pat on the back and then feel a drive to move on to the next one.

Next, I create visual images that represent the metaphors and accompanying verbatim quotations. Two methods that I have employed to create iconographic research poetry (Meyer, 2017) rely on word processing software, such as Microsoft Word: The first technique uses linear lines of typed text; the second embeds text within clip art or icons. A third method uses a graphic design program, such as InDesign, to layer images and text and create new shapes using words from the poem. See Table 2.1 for a comparison of the three methods that can be used to create iconographic research poetry.

Table 2.1 Three methods for creating iconographic research poems

Typed text. The first technique that I use to create iconographic research poems employs line breaks to delineate the shape of the word-image. This approach is similar to techniques employed by classic poets such as Kostelanetz (1970) and Swenson (1970), who originally used typewriters to write concrete and iconographic poems. Different elements of typography (i.e., font, format, spacing, capitalization) can be applied to emphasize certain words and evoke emotions that are consistent with respondents’ words. For example, in my work, I sometimes use all uppercase letters or bold formatting to indicate the forcefulness with which respondents express an idea or emotion. However, Solt (1968) cautioned poets to think carefully about their typographical decisions:

[. . .] for the form, weight, and scale of letters and words can be used to heighten, can at best become physically part of what he has to say; they can unobtrusively have little effect upon what he has to say; or they can intrude a discordant note into what he has to say. (p. 61)

To create an iconographic poem comprised of typed text, begin by opening a Microsoft Word document. (At the time I wrote this chapter, I was using MS Word 2019, but these instructions can be adapted easily to a different version of the software.) Think of a shape that represents the metaphor you want to depict. For example, you might visualize the shape of a mountain to represent the student who used a mountain climbing metaphor to describe her academic journey. Start at the far left margin and begin typing the text of your poem, comprised of your participants’ words. Like Ellingson (2011), Glesne (1997), Miller (2019), and Schoone (2018), I recommend retaining the exact words participants used in an effort to remain true to their voices. In the event that it is necessary to add words for clarification, Glesne recommends enclosing the words in brackets to indicate that the words are yours, rather than the participant’s. If a quotation is too long, consider condensing the prose, editing out redundant words and phrases that do not directly support the theme (Ellingson, 2011). Alternatively, when a quotation is not long enough to create a desired word-image, you may decide to weave multiple participants’ voices together in one poem by placing them one after the other, separating excerpts with visual cues, such as multiple asterisks or changes in the direction of text.

Using the tab key, space bar, and hard returns, create the shape of a mountain on the page. Note that some shapes will give you more freedom to exercise poetic license than others. Whenever possible, think strategically about line breaks: Not only do you want to create a poem that approximates a given shape, you also want to use long lines to build tension, followed by short lines that signal an abrupt change in direction. Faulkner (2009, 2020) urged research poets to consider how line breaks and enjambment can be employed to transform interview data into found poetry. For example, you might use enjambment (a line break where syntax doesn’t naturally pause) to signal a poetic turn. Just as repetition can emphasize a recurring theme in the data, an unexpected break in the metrical contract may represent the voice of an outlier. Add space between words to slow the pace down; remove punctuation to speed up the pace.

Once you have converted your participants’ words to an iconographic research poem composed of typed text, you can edit it, using white space, indentation, font size, and line spacing to maximize your use of the page. If you plan to submit your research poetry for publication, you may want to consult the journal’s manuscript preparation guidelines. In general, it is a good idea to create camera-ready images that are in.tif or .jpeg format with a resolution of at least 300dpi and no larger than 4.5 inches. Once you have finalized your iconographic research poem, look back at what you have created. (See Fig. 2.1.) If your research poem is more than 40 words, congratulate yourself for resisting the tyranny of the block quotation. In Vannini’s (2019) words, “Indentation is lame. It kills quotes. It kills them, and it puts them in a coffin in the middle of the page” (p. 45).

Fig. 2.1

Typed text iconographic research poem: “Mountain”

Clip art/icons. An alternative technique that can be employed to generate iconographic research poetry uses Microsoft clip art or icons to create an image behind the text. This practice serves two purposes: First, it can help writers visualize the shape of the iconographic research poem, so they know where to place line breaks in order to create the image. Second, it can provide a lightly shaded background that allows readers to more easily recognize the shape of the iconographic research poem. Although some scholars argue that visual poetry should demand readers to actively engage with the text (Bohn, 2011), I urge researchers to attempt to strike a balance—challenge your readers, but don’t produce a word-image that is so difficult to decipher that novice poetry readers give up.

To create an iconographic poem using clip art or icons, begin by opening a document in Microsoft Word. After making a hard return at the top of the page, select “insert online pictures.” In the search box, type “clip art” and the word for a shape that represents the metaphor you want to depict. For example, if you were to use the previous mountain climbing metaphor, you would type “mountain.” Make sure that the box “Creative Commons only” is checked: If you plan to submit your research poetry for publication, the image you use must be in the public domain and free to use, share and modify, even for commercial purposes. Alternatively, you could select “insert icons” and type “mountain.” Select the image, then select “insert” to place it in your document. (See Fig. 2.2.) Under Format, select “Graphics Fill,” then a transparent color, such as “White, Background 1, Darker 5%.” Adjust the height and width of your image to approximate the size you want your poem to be. Sometimes it helps to type your poem in the shape of a prose poem or paragraph and adjust your margins and line spacing so that you can get a sense of the height and width of your text. Select “position in line with text” and “wrap text behind text.”

Fig. 2.2

Clipart/icon mountain

To start typing your poem, cut and paste the material that you want to fill your image in the line at the top of the document. (See Fig. 2.3.) Next, drag the image so that it is positioned over the text with the first word in the place you want your poem to begin. (See Fig. 2.4.) Adjust the font size and line spacing as needed to match the size of your image and use the tab key and space bar to create white space so that your text fills only the image. (See Fig. 2.5.) Once you have filled the image with text, you can select “White, Background 1” from “Format > Graphics Fill,” if you want to remove the background image. You can also select the picture box and delete it without deleting the text of your poem. You can then display your ruler and gridlines, which will allow you to align your text and smooth out any rough edges. However, you may want to resist the temptation to “tuck in” ragged ends if your participants address subject matter that resists coloring inside the lines.

Fig. 2.3

Quotation: “it was like climbing small mountains …”

Fig. 2.4

Clipart/icon mountain and quotation

Fig. 2.5

Clipart/icon iconographic research poem: “two mountains”

Graphic design. A third technique that can be used to create iconographic research poetry employs a graphic design program, such as Adobe InDesign. (At the time I wrote this chapter, I was using Adobe InDesign 2019, but these instructions can be adapted easily to a different version of the software.) To generate a poem using InDesign, first open a new blank document by going to File > New > Document. Create a standard 8.5 inch × 11 inch document. In the new document box, change the units from the preset, picas, to inches. Type 8.5 in the width box and 11 in the height box, and then click “Create.” If you would prefer a landscape orientation for your poem, click on the landscape icon.

Start your poem by thinking of a shape that represents your underlying metaphor. For example, to create a visual representation of the mountain climbing metaphor, you might choose three triangle-shaped mountains. Click on the Rectangle Tool in the left-hand toolbar and place three rectangles across the bottom of the document. As you place each rectangle, you can adjust the size to make it smaller or larger. Using the drop-down menu at the top of the page, select Object > Convert Shape > Triangle. (See Fig. 2.6.) Next, break the quotation up into three subsections, each one a bit longer than the previous one, to give you the requisite number of words to build three word-mountains, each one larger than the preceding one. (See Fig. 2.7.)

Fig. 2.6

InDesign triangle mountains

Fig. 2.7

Quotation in three parts: “it was like climbing small mountains...”

To create a text box within the blank space of each mountain image, click on the Type Tool, a capital T icon in the left-hand toolbar. Place three text boxes on the document, one within each mountain. Fill in each box with the text from the quotation and begin shaping the mountains. Each line should get increasingly longer as the slope of the word-mountain descends. Once each word-mountain is complete, you can add texture to the words by choosing a font and editing the style of the words you want to stand out in the poem. Select a font that matches the emotional tone of the quotation and use all uppercase letters or bold formatting to emphasize important words. Make each mountain a different size by increasing the font size as the mountains get larger, moving from left to right. To increase the size of the font to fit the space, highlight the text and either use the arrows to change the font size one point at a time or type in the size you think would work best. (See Fig. 2.8.)

Fig. 2.8

InDesign mountains and quotation

To complete the scene, you might consider adding background features such as a sun and clouds. To find a clear image of a sun and clouds, conduct an advanced Google image search for “sun outline” and “cloud outline,” and download an image that is large enough that it will not look pixelated or grainy when you resize it in your document. As in the clip art/icon poem, be sure to filter images for usage rights. To place the image, go to File > Place, and InDesign will prompt you to choose an image for your document. Place the sun image in the top left corner of the page by clicking on the screen where you would like the top left corner of your image to start, and then pull the cursor across the page to make the image the desired size. Follow the same steps to place your clouds. Now that you have your mountains placed and your sky arranged, your InDesign iconographic research poem is complete. (See Fig. 2.9.) Praise it with an emphatic, “Summit!”

Fig. 2.9

InDesign iconographic research poem: “three mountains”

2.4 Member and Artist-Poet Reflections

Once researchers complete an installation of iconographic research poems that represent their findings, the next step is to solicit member reflections (Tracy, 2010) by sharing a draft of their poems with key informants and inviting them to assess the resonance (Tracy, 2010) of the analysis and representation. Creating a space in which to dialogue about research findings with participants enhances the credibility of one’s research. I argue that, rather than seeking to validate the accuracy of one’s findings, scholars ought to assess the extent to which their work resonates with respondents. In other words, do your findings reverberate with your participants in a meaningful way? Do they identify with the metaphors that you uncovered? Do they find your research poems accessible?

In addition to conducting member reflections, researchers can also solicit feedback from artists and poets. If you don’t have any friends who are artists or poets, you might consider joining a local writing group or taking an art class in your community. Alternatively, you could go to a poetry reading or art exhibit and invite a poet or artist whose work resonates with you to collaborate with you. Ask your new writing or artistic partner whether they were moved by your iconographic research poems: Did you achieve aesthetic merit (Tracy, 2010) or artistic concentration (Faulkner, 2009, 2020) by presenting your text in a beautiful, evocative, and artistic way? By incorporating artist-poet feedback, one can improve the aesthetic quality of one’s work. In addition, engaging in artist-poet reflection is an opportunity for you to build community with other writers and artists in your area. By sharing your poems with others, you are creating a space for dialogue about poetic inquiry in your culture. Every such conversation about poetry is revolutionary because it liberates poems that might otherwise languish in the drawer.

Finally, scholars can incorporate participant and poet-artist feedback to revise poems that are difficult to read. For example, if the direction of the text in some poems was difficult to discern, research poets can add white space, change line breaks, and use formatting to reduce ambiguity. In these ways, researchers can revise their iconographic research poems to reduce reader burden. Although readers may still need to “perform a series of gyrations in order to arrive at their destination” (Bohn, 2011, p. 16), research poets can facilitate the decoding process by providing visual and verbal cues that “guide the reader through the intersemiotic maze” (Bohn, 2011, p. 16). For example, you can signal the beginning of a poem with a letter that is larger than the rest or set off with bold formatting. If your poem is circular, readers tend to proceed in a clockwise direction. I used both of these techniques when I wrote an iconographic research poem in the form of a juggler to represent the experiences of caregivers of children with mental illness (Meyer, 2017). (See Fig. 2.10.)

Fig. 2.10

“Juggler.” Source Meyer (2017). Reprinted by permission of the author. Clipart source https://game-icons.net/1x1/lorc/juggler.html by Lorc. CC BY 3.0

2.5 Summary

In this chapter, I have described methods that can be used to create and design iconographic research poetry. Analytic strategies such as iterative thematic analysis and metaphor analysis can be used to generate iconographic research poetry from qualitative data. Word processing software such as Microsoft Word and graphic design programs such as Adobe InDesign can be employed to create iconographic research poetry using techniques that range from typed text, clip art/icons, to layered images and text. By soliciting member reflections, as well as feedback from artists and poets, researchers can assess the resonance of their work and enhance the aesthetic quality of their research poems. In the process, they can create a space to engage in dialogue about poetic inquiry in their communities.

2.6 Exercises

• 1. Examine a data set from a current or former qualitative research project. Conduct a metaphor analysis by sifting through the interview data and identifying metaphors that participants use to frame their experience. What new insights do these metaphors offer about your participants?

• 2. Take one of the metaphors that you identified in the previous exercise. Think of some visual images that represent the metaphor. Which visual image do you think fits best? Why?

• 3. Identify one or more quotations from your data set that evidence the metaphor that you identified in the previous exercise. Use one of the techniques described in this chapter (i.e., typed text, clip art/icons, or graphic design) to create your own iconographic research poem. If you are proficient in the visual arts or graphic design, invent your own method of making an iconographic research poem with your favorite medium.

• 4. Solicit feedback on your iconographic research poem from a poet or artist. If you don’t already have a friend who is a poet or artist, then identify a writing group, workshop, art class, or exhibit that you can attend in order to make a new friend. Find out when their next meeting time is and put it on your calendar. When the day comes, go to the event with the intention of meeting someone who can help you improve your craft.