Keywords

This final chapter distills the key findings explored throughout this book, underscoring significant conclusions on sūtra translation from the early medieval China to the Tang Dynasty. It also serves as a bridge to potential future research, highlighting the need for continued exploration into translation organizations and models in the post-Tang era.

The conclusion affirms the importance of ongoing scholarly discourse on this topic, given the historical impact and cultural significance of sūtra translation. It is hoped that the presented analysis inspires further investigations, enriching the understanding of sūtra translation’s role in shaping Chinese Buddhism and cultural history.

6.1 Evolution of Collaborative Sūtra Translation in Medieval China: A Journey from Small Teams to Large-Scale Efforts

During the medieval period, the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese followed two paths. The first involved individual translators who undertook the task of translating the entire text on their own. The second path involved collaborative translation, where a group of translators worked together, progressing through the scripture step by step. This monograph specifically focuses on the collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures in Tang China. Historically, these collaborative efforts can be classified into three distinct models: small-scale collaborative translation, large-scale collaborative translation, and elite collaborative translation. These models underwent six stages of evolution, and the key highlights of these stages are summarized as follows:

6.1.1 Stage One: The Emergence of Small Group Translations During the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period

During the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period, which marked the initial introduction of Buddhism to China, a significant development took place in the form of small group translations. At this time, translators from the Western Regions who were spreading Buddhism in China faced a challenge: their proficiency in Chinese was limited, requiring assistance from others in translating and transcribing the scriptures. Local Buddhists, eager to deepen their understanding of Buddhism, willingly stepped forward to offer their help, leading to the emergence of small group translations.

The primary methods employed in these early translations were the “two-step collaboration” and the “three-step collaboration.” In the two-step collaboration, the process involved the translator orally translating the scriptures into Chinese, followed by another individual who would listen to the translator’s interpretation and transcribe it into a final written text. The three-step collaboration, on the other hand, comprised of three stages: Firstly, the translator recited the original text of the scriptures; secondly, an assistant listened to the contents recited by the translator and provided an oral translation into Chinese; thirdly, another translator listened to the Chinese oral translation and transcribed it into written form.

These collaborative methods facilitated the gradual transfer of the profound teachings and sacred knowledge of Buddhism from the original scriptures to the Chinese language, making them accessible to a wider audience in China. This period laid the foundation for the subsequent development and refinement of translation techniques in later eras.

6.1.2 Stage Two: The Transformation of Small Group Translations During the Western Jin Dynasty

The second stage occurred during the Western Jin Dynasty, marking an important improvement in the small group translations. At this time, the Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures was spearheaded by Dharmarakṣa, a renowned translator who rendered numerous significant Mahāyāna scriptures into Chinese. His contributions were so remarkable that he earned the revered title of “Dunhuang Bodhisattva” (Dunhuang Pusa 敦煌菩薩). Building upon the small group translation practices from the previous era, Dharmarakṣa introduced notable revisions to the collaborative structure.

During the translation of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, Dharmarakṣa implemented several enhancements. Firstly, he expanded the number of assistant translators involved in the process, allowing for a more comprehensive and accurate rendering of the text. In addition, Dharmarakṣa introduced a crucial step of proofreading the translations to ensure the high quality of the resulting Chinese version. Moreover, he incorporated post-translation processes, such as scripture writing, explication, and teaching, to facilitate the wider dissemination and understanding of the translated scriptures. These innovations marked the first transformation of the small group translation model, elevating its effectiveness and impact.

Dharmarakṣa’s contributions during the Western Jin Dynasty not only enriched the body of translated Buddhist scriptures but also set a precedent for future translators to refine and improve upon the translation practices. His efforts laid a solid foundation for the continued development of Chinese Buddhist translation in subsequent periods.

6.1.3 Stage Three: Further Improvements in Small Group Translations and the Emergence of Large-Scale Translation Teams during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms Period

The third stage occurred during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms period, which exhibited two significant developments in the field of translation.

Firstly, there was further refinement of small group translations. During this period, the “two-step collaboration” and “three-step collaboration” approaches became highly popular in small group translations. Some later translators, building upon Dharmarakṣa’s translation reforms, made additional adjustments to the collaborative process. They introduced new translation tasks such as Sanskrit writing and proofreading, and the post-translation review became more thorough. The aim was to minimize errors and misunderstandings in the translation process. This marked the second transformation of the small group translation model, which gained prominence during the Former Qin Dynasty under the leadership of Daoan 道安 (314–385) and Zhao Zheng 趙正.

Secondly, large-scale translation sites emerged for the first time. The Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms period witnessed significant changes in the collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures in medieval China, introducing new methods. In addition to the improvements in small group translations, a new translation model emerged, referred to in this book as “large-scale translation teams.”

This model was characterized by the involvement of numerous assistants, often exceeding a hundred and, in some cases, even surpassing a thousand. In the process of translating scriptures, additional steps were introduced, including teaching, debating, and correction, which fostered the participation of hundreds or even thousands of individuals at the translation site. The goal was to harness collective wisdom, foster clear mutual understanding, and ensure that the translations aligned with the reading habits of the general public. This large-scale collaboration originated from the Chang’an translation site of Kumārajīva in the Later Qin Dynasty and continued into the Northern Liang Dynasty.

6.1.4 Stage Four: Continuation and Adaptation of Translation Models During the Southern and Northern Dynasties

The fourth stage corresponds to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, which demonstrates three distinct characteristics in collaborative translation.

Firstly, it continued the small group translation model inherited from the previous generation. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, small group collaborative translation largely retained the “two-step collaboration” or “three-step collaboration” method without significant reforms. However, the patrons of translations placed greater emphasis on selecting talented assistant translators, and the number of translators in small groups exceeded that of previous dynasties.

Secondly, the introduction of translation supervisors was notable. In the mid-Southern and Northern Dynasties, the Northern Dynasties initiated a translation supervision system to coordinate the operations of translation groups, meet the needs of translators, and enhance the collective management of Buddhist scripture translation. This system gradually spread to the late Southern Dynasties as well.

Thirdly, large-scale translation sites occasionally emerged. The prime period for large-scale translation teams was during the Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms period. While this model facilitated the dissemination and canonicalization of translations, it posed significant management challenges during the execution process. These challenges involved the fluctuating quality of hundreds or thousands of assistant translators and the absence of standardized procedures to prevent leaks of unfinished translations that could potentially mislead the recipients of the new scriptures. As a result, large-scale translation teams declined during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and became far less common compared to small group translations.

6.1.5 Stage Five: Expansion and Maturation of Small Group Translation Model During the Sui Dynasty

The fifth stage corresponds to the Sui Dynasty, which predominantly continued the small group translation model established during the Southern and Northern Dynasties while also expanding the size of translation groups. Inheriting the small group translation model from the previous era, the Sui Dynasty implemented detailed division of labor. In addition to recitation, translation, and transcription, there were dedicated translators responsible for proofreading and correcting the text. Ten virtuous monks served as guardians of the translation site to ensure smooth operations, and the overall structure of the translation process matured.

Furthermore, certain translation groups in the Sui Dynasty consisted of more than twenty assistants, which represented a significant scale. The number of participants exceeded that of the early medieval period, thus laying the groundwork for the establishment of elite translation teams in the Tang Dynasty.

6.1.6 Stage Six: The Fusion of Translation Models and Emergence of Elite Translation Sites During the Tang Dynasty

The sixth stage corresponds to the Tang Dynasty, which was characterized by the development of an elite translation model that combined both small group translation and large-scale translation teams. Collaborative translation during this era predominantly occurred at imperial translation sites, accompanied by small group translations. The elite translation teams built upon the translation model established during the Sui Dynasty, incorporating the small group translation practices from the Eastern Han, the Three Kingdoms, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Furthermore, they integrated the collaborative elements of collective discussion and correction found in large-scale translation teams from earlier eras.

The Tang court placed significant emphasis on the academic background of translators. In the early Tang Dynasty, the “Ten Branches” served as selection criteria, restricting entry to the translation sites and limiting the number of translators to exclude ordinary individuals.

The elite translation sites of the Tang Dynasty first emerged during the early reign of Emperor Taizong. They were initiated by Prabhākaramitra, inherited by Xuanzang, and further refined during the reigns of Emperor Gaozong to Emperor Ruizong. Notably, two major translation sites led by Yijing and Bodhiruci made remarkable contributions, representing significant innovations.

During the Tianbao 天寶 period under Emperor Xuanzong, the elite translation efforts were spearheaded by Amoghavajra, extending through the subsequent reigns of Emperors Suzong and Daizong. This period witnessed another innovation as positions dedicated to the phonetics and rhythm of Sanskrit chants were introduced. Collaborative translation activities were also linked to the court’s focus on protecting the country and alleviating disasters.

The last large-scale elite translation in the Tang Dynasty occurred during the Zhenyuan 貞元 era under Emperor Dezong, presided over by Prajña. However, translation efforts faced obstacles due to Emperor Wuzong’s persecution of Buddhism and the subsequent decline of national strength. With the establishment of the Dharma Transmission Court following the Tang system during the Northern Song Dynasty, the elite translation site was revived.

6.2 Prospects for Further Investigation

6.2.1 Further Elaborating on the Perspective of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Medieval China

This book extensively examines a wide range of historical archives encompassing Chinese Buddhist scripture translations. It offers a detailed analysis of the collaborative translation model employed during the Tang Dynasty, delving into the growth and evolution of each translation organization, the biographies of notable translators, and the fundamental processes involved in translation. Its primary objective is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the unique features and qualities inherent in Buddhist scripture translations during the Tang China for university students studying translation history or Buddhist scripture translation, researchers in these fields, and individuals from the general public with a keen interest in this subject matter.

In the future, there are several compelling topics that warrant in-depth exploration:

  1. A.

    The origins of translation: The causal model proposed by translation scholar Andrew Chesterman can be utilized to analyze the factors that contributed to collaborative translations in different periods (Chesterman, 2017, 123–146).Footnote 1 These factors include the historical and cultural context, prevalent translation conventions in medieval China, and the choices made by individual translators. Unraveling these elements will provide further insights into the nature of ancient Chinese scripture translation activities.

  2. B.

    Translation strategies: Preserved original texts of translated scriptures offer an opportunity for comparative analysis. Future research can involve methodical textual analysis from a linguistic perspective to examine the translation strategies employed by various translation organizations. In addition, exploring the relationship between these strategies and the division of labor processes will be valuable.

  3. C.

    The impact of normative forces on translation: By applying norm theory from Translation Studies, it is possible to investigate the diverse normative forces at play within the medieval translation world and their influence on translators’ decision-making processes.Footnote 2 This line of inquiry will contribute to a better understanding of the specific dynamics underlying collaborative translations.

  4. D.

    The dissemination of translations: Understanding how the completed scripture translations were disseminated to enable Chinese Buddhists to access the newly translated texts is crucial. While this book briefly touches upon this topic, future research can draw upon actor-network theory from sociology to deconstruct the historical events involved in the transmission process.

6.2.2 The Lone Translators: Investigating Independent Translation in Medieval China

As mentioned earlier, ancient Chinese Buddhist scripture translation activities followed two distinct paths: collaborative and individual translations. While this book has provided a brief overview of collaborative translation models, individual translations have not been thoroughly explored. Historical records reveal numerous instances of translators independently translating Buddhist scriptures, often showcasing skills and expertise comparable to collaborative efforts. An example of such an individual translator is An Shigao 安世高 from the Eastern Han period, who quickly mastered Chinese upon his arrival in China and undertook independent translation work, teaching the translated texts to others without royal or institutional support (T50, no. 2059, vol. 1, 323). Similar cases can be found in historical accounts.

Therefore, a significant area for future research lies in exploring the history of individual translations in medieval China. This would involve investigating the backgrounds and histories of independent translators, examining each case through prefaces, scripture records, monk biographies, and other relevant sources. This research should explore the translation processes employed by these individual translators, investigate their thoughts and strategies regarding translation, and analyze whether their translated texts reflect their unique translation philosophies. A potential structure for this book could draw inspiration from Douglas Robinson’s Western Translation Theory: From Herodotus to Nietzsche, with each translator being given a dedicated biography that chronicles their life and translation activities (Robinson, 2002). Moreover, including a comprehensive list of original documents and research works related to each translator would further enhance the readers’ understanding. If realized, this endeavor could serve as a companion volume to this monograph, providing readers with a more comprehensive understanding of the history of Buddhist scripture translation in medieval China.

6.2.3 Beyond the Tang Dynasty: Tracing Collaborative Translation Thereafter

The medieval period witnessed a remarkable flourishing of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation activities, reaching its zenith during the Tang Dynasty. Subsequently, the Northern Song government established the Dharma Transmission Court, which perpetuated the elite system of the Tang Dynasty and engaged in collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures for a century. However, a significant shift occurred in scripture translation activities due to various factors, including the decline of Buddhism in India, the scarcity of new scriptures, a decrease in Western monks, and the evolving cultural and political landscapes in East Asia. Translation activities expanded beyond the translation of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit and other languages of the Silk Road into Chinese. They encompassed translations into languages spoken by bordering ethnic groups such as Mongolian and Manchu. Moreover, there was a notable endeavor to translate old Chinese Buddhist scriptures into these border languages, which found wide readership among diverse ethnic communities in East Asia. Collaboration continued to be a prominent and defining feature of these translation models. Therefore, the subject matter covered in this book, focusing on translation organizations in Tang China, represents only the initial exploration of a much broader research landscape. Future studies can probe the examination of scripture translation organizations during or after the Song Dynasty.

Two key topics are recommended for further investigation:

  1. A.

    The history of collaborative scripture translation in the Western Xia Kingdom: The discovery of a vast collection of Western Xia documents, including Buddhist scriptures, in locations like Khara-Khoto in the nineteenth century provides valuable firsthand accounts of Western Xia people involved in translating scriptures.Footnote 3 This offers insights into how Western Xia monarchs supported scripture translation and the collaborative practices employed by translators. It would be intriguing to explore whether the translation teams in the Western Xia Kingdom resembled those of the Central Plains dynasties, whether they adhered to Han regulations, introduced innovations, or developed their distinct approaches. Examining these aspects will contribute to constructing a comprehensive history of collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures in East Asia.

  2. B.

    The history of collaborative translation in the Qing Dynasty: While the translation activities of the Qing Dynasty, especially regarding the translation and engraving of the Manchu Tripiṭaka, have been extensively discussed, there remains a notable gap in scholarly analysis from the perspective of collaborative translation (Zhang, 2008). To further advance our understanding, future research can delve into the re-examination of scripture translation records, such as the Qingshilu 清實錄 (The Veritable Records of the Qing Dynasty). In addition, the digitized Manchu scriptures available in recent years can be taken into consideration.Footnote 4 Through these valuable sources, scholars can reassess the system and translation model utilized in the Manchu translation of Buddhist scriptures during the Qing Dynasty. This comprehensive analysis will contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the translation practices and methodologies employed after the medieval period.

6.2.4 Utilizing Digital Tools to Unlock the History of Buddhist Scripture Translation

The remarkable growth of digital humanities in the twenty-first century offers exciting opportunities for exploring the history of Buddhist scripture translation. Leveraging the latest advancements in information technology to aid in this endeavor is a valuable topic for scholarly discussion (Siu, 2019). A key focus should be on digitizing historical materials related to scripture translation, integrating existing research findings, and making them publicly accessible. Furthermore, the development of a robust system with data visualization capabilities would greatly assist researchers in uncovering overlooked historical nuances through interactive three-dimensional representations of textual materials. Such a system could also be utilized in classroom settings to facilitate student learning. By starting with Buddhist scripture translation, students can gain insights into the ancient cultural exchanges between China and other regions.

One suggestion is to gather historical materials on Buddhist scripture translation from diverse sources and develop an innovative online tool called the “Buddhist Translation Nexus: A Web-based Platform for Teaching and Research on Scripture Translation in Medieval China.” This platform would serve as a centralized repository for original materials from collaborative translation sites across different time periods. It would incorporate annotations and include a full-text search engine for convenient exploration of related files. The platform could visualize the relationships among translators at each site using interactive tools such as force-directed graphs or three-dimensional maps, providing a clear understanding of their connections. In addition, by employing the translator research framework in Translation Studies, it would be possible to analyze the relationship between translators’ social networks and the emergence of scripture translation activities. This system could also be integrated into undergraduate and graduate courses on translation history, incorporating digital tools to enhance students’ understanding of the complex history and relationships involved in ancient Chinese scripture translation. This approach would deepen students’ knowledge, improve teaching effectiveness, and foster future research in the field of Buddhist scripture translation.