Keywords

After the Anshi Rebellion, the domestic political landscape experienced instability and unrest. However, the translation of Buddhist scriptures continued uninterrupted, driven by several significant factors. One key reason was the deep devotion to Buddhism among the rulers of that era. They sought to accumulate merit and enhance the empire’s prosperity by promoting Buddhism, while also using Buddhist religious rituals to pacify the public’s minds.

During the late Tang period, one of the most prominent translation organizations was led by Prajña, operating under the reign of Emperor Dezong. Their translation initiatives were extensively documented in Yuanzhao 圓照’s Datang Zhenyuan Xukaiyuanshijiaolu 大唐貞元續開元釋教錄 (The Continuation of the Kaiyuan Buddhist Records in the Zhenyuan Era of the Great Tang) and Zhenyuan Xinding Shijiaomulu 貞元新定釋教目錄 (The Newly Established Buddhist Catalogue in the Zhenyuan Era). Notably, the translation of the longer version of the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya 廣本般若波羅蜜多心經 received particular attention in these records. Unfortunately, this aspect has not received widespread scholarly examination in the past.

Therefore, this chapter focuses on the translation team of the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, co-led by Prajña and Liyan 利言. It explores the team’s (1) organizational structure, (2) translation process, and (3) workflow, revealing their distinctive characteristics. Subsequently, this chapter analyzes the relationship between these features and the translation norms, taking into account various factors. This analysis aims to reconstruct the history of sūtra translation within the Prajña translation team during the politically tumultuous mid-Tang period. Through this exploration, it becomes evident how sūtra translation activities persisted despite the political upheaval, emphasizing their enduring significance within the cultural landscape of that era.

5.1 Prajña’s Background and Arrival in China

During the late Tang period, the final prominent translation institution before Emperor Wuzong’s suppression of Buddhism was established by Prajña under the reign of Emperor Dezong. Hailing from North India, Prajña renounced his family at a tender age of seven to pursue a monastic life. He received full ordination at the age of twenty and initially focused on studying Theravāda Buddhism. Later, at the renowned Nālandā Monastery in Central India, he immersed himself in the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Prajña had the privilege of being instructed by the renowned masters Zhihu 智護, Jinyou 進友, and Zhiyou 智友. Subsequently, he embarked on a journey to South India to explore esoteric Buddhism, thus gaining proficiency in various Buddhist doctrines.

Upon learning that Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva was preaching in the Central Plains, Prajña resolved to visit China and propagate Buddhism. Carrying the original Sanskrit scriptures, he arrived in Guangzhou, during the early years of Emperor Dezong’s Jianzhong 建中 period (780–783) via the sea route. From there, he made his way to the capital. Upon the onset of the Zhenyuan 貞元 period, Prajña took up residence at the home of his relative, Luo Haoxin 羅好心, who held the position of a commander in the forbidden army, and patiently awaited an opportunity to commence his scripture translation endeavors.

5.2 The Composition of the Translation Team and Its Characteristics

5.2.1 The Structure of the Translation Team Comprised of Seasoned Translators

The translation team responsible for the expanded version of the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya by Prajña and Liyan during the reign of Emperor Dezong possessed several notable features, the first being the composition of experienced translators. This team consisted of four types of members:

  1. A.

    Initiator of translation requests: During the late Tang era, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China was typically initiated either by imperial decree or by devoted Buddhist practitioners. In the case of Prajña’s project on the translation of the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, it was Zhirou 智柔 from the capital who played a fundamental role in requesting the translation.

  2. B.

    Chief translators: These individuals held the primary responsibility for overseeing the translation process from Sanskrit to Chinese. In the historical records, it is evident that the expanded Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya was translated during the reign of Emperor Dezong by Prajña and Liyan (般若共利言), indicating that these two masters jointly managed the translation efforts. The decision to have two chief translators for the scripture was influenced by two key factors. Firstly, it is known from historical accounts that while Prajña possessed proficiency in Sanskrit, his command of Chinese was comparatively limited. Thus, an assistant was needed to ensure smooth communication and accurate translation. Liyan, who was multilingual and adept in both Sanskrit and Chinese, played a crucial role in bridging the linguistic gap between Prajña and the Chinese language (T55, no. 2157, vol. 14, 878). His presence allowed for effective communication, understanding of intended meanings, and the translation process. If any uncertainties, inaccuracies, or difficulties emerged in the Chinese version, Liyan could consult with Prajña to ensure the translation’s quality. Secondly, Liyan possessed prior experience in translating another version of the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya during the Kaiyuan 開元 period of Emperor Xuanzong, making him an excellent candidate to apply his previous translation expertise to this new project (T55, no. 2156, vol. 1, 748).

  3. C.

    Ancillary translators: These individuals played supportive roles in various stages of the translation process. Although the expanded Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya is credited to the joint translation efforts of the two masters Prajña and Liyan, historical records from the Zhenyuan Xinding Shijiaomulu 貞元新定釋教目錄 (The Newly Established Buddhist Catalogue in the Zhenyuan Era) not only reveal that the final translation was the result of various tasks such as proofreading, text embellishment, and copywriting but also indicate that the translation process of the scripture involved several ancillary translators who each had specific responsibilities. Also, these translators had substantial translation experience, having been involved in the translation of the Sūtra of the Six Pāramitā 大乘理趣六波羅蜜多經 (T55, no. 2157, vol. 17, 893).

  4. D.

    Presenter: During the reign of Emperor Dezong, the translation of scriptures held significant importance, with each new Chinese translation of a Buddhist scripture requiring personal review by the emperor before dissemination. In this process, a designated monk served as the “presenter” (Jinshang 進上) (T55, no. 2157, vol. 17, 893), responsible for documenting and explaining the rationale and methodology behind the translation. The presenter’s role also involved emphasizing the value of the newly translated scriptures and seeking the emperor’s permission for wider dissemination. For instance, the Sūtra of the Six Pāramitā was presented by Liangxiu 良秀 from the Ximing Monastery. Similarly, in the case of Prajña and Liyan’s Chinese translation of the expanded Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, Zhirou 智柔 from the Qianfu Monastery, who initiated the translation request, also served as the presenter, fulfilling the aforementioned responsibilities.

In summary, in addition to the support from Liyan, Prajña’s translation team was composed of highly skilled individuals who led the translation efforts. They possessed extensive experience in translation, expertise in proofreading and refining texts, a deep understanding of scriptural exegesis, and a history of assisting in the translation and interpretation of scriptures in the capital long before the reign of Emperor Dezong. Their background allowed them to participate actively in imperial translation activities and develop close relationships with influential supporters of the team.

5.2.2 The Multifaceted Division of Labor in the Translation Process

The expanded Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya was not a long scripture, but it still adopted a finely divided collaborative translation model. This was the second major characteristic of the team-based translation process in the era of Emperor Dezhong.

The Chinese translation process for the scripture involved several distinct steps (T55, no. 2157, vol. 17, 893). It began with the “request for translation” (Qingyi 請譯), where the chief translator was asked to undertake the translation of a specific scripture. Following this, Prajña assumed leadership of the translation project, with the assistance of Liyan. Both Prajña and Liyan served as chief translators, responsible for the crucial task of producing the first draft of the translation. However, as mentioned earlier, Liyan, with his exceptional proficiency in multiple languages, including Sanskrit and Chinese, and profound understanding of Buddhist principles, likely played a major role in the process of “transcription” (Bishou 筆受).

According to the Songgaosengzhuan 宋高僧傳 (Biographies of Eminent Monks Compiled in the Song Dynasty), the role of the “transcriber” demanded fluency in both Chinese and Sanskrit, as well as extensive knowledge of Buddhism. The transcriber’s primary responsibility was to engage in active communication with the chief translator, asking pertinent questions and learning from them, before proceeding to write down the translated text (相問委知，然後下筆) (T50, no. 2061, vol. 3, 724). Liyan, with his linguistic talents, was well-suited to fulfill this crucial role and collaborated with Prajña to produce the initial translated version in Chinese.

After the initial translation, the text was handed over to other monk translators responsible for “proving the meaning” (Zhengyi 證義) and “embellishing the text” (Runwen 潤文), and “copywriting” (Shanxie 繕寫). “Proving the meaning” aimed to ensure that the translated text did not deviate from the original Sanskrit version. “Embellishing the text” was to refine the wording for better understanding. The Songgaosengzhuan 宋高僧傳 (Biographies of Eminent Monks Compiled in the Song Dynasty) explained this process as generally being carried out by those familiar with Buddhist teachings and secular knowledge (T50, no. 2061, vol. 3, 724). They checked whether the language used in the first draft of the translation was appropriate. In addition, “copywriting” involved carefully transcribing the verified translated text in its entirety for presentation, in preparation for future dissemination of the scriptures.

The final two steps involved presenting the completed scripture to the emperor for approval, after which it could be published and distributed throughout the country. Historical records provide evidence of this process during the late Tang era, particularly when Prajña’s translation team completed the translation of the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya. In this case, Zhirou, the initiator of the translation project, submitted the new translation to Emperor Dezhong, accompanied by a comprehensive statement explaining the translation process from start to finish. Upon reviewing the submission, the emperor expressed his profound agreement with Zhirou’s report and granted permission for the newly translated scripture to be widely disseminated (師所陳請，深為允愜。今依來奏，用廣真經) (T55, no. 2156, vol. 1, 757). This remarkable example serves as a testament to the elite translation process during the late Tang era.

5.2.3 Simultaneous Processing of Collaborative Translation and Court Duties

According to historical records, the translation of the expanded Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya by Prajña and Liyan commenced in the middle of the sixth year of Zhenyuan. However, during this period, they were also engaged in preparations for a diplomatic mission to North India. This dual commitment hindered their ability to devote their full attention to the translation work. This simultaneous handling of translation and court duties exemplifies the third characteristic of team-based translation during that era. The detailed record of the diplomatic duties that Prajña was specifically responsible for was clearly documented by Yuanzhao, a translator at the Prajña’s translation team:

On the fifteenth day of the seventh month in the sixth year of Zhenyuan, an allocation of fifty bolts of silk and five sets of winter clothes was once again bestowed upon Prajña. It was on this day that Prajña received the order to embark on a significant mission as a messenger to Kashmir in North India. Two days later, an additional set of spring clothes, along with thirty bolts of silk and four sets of winter clothes, were granted specifically for two of Prajña’s disciples who were chosen to accompany their revered master.

Subsequently, on the twenty-second day of the seventh month, Prajña was escorted to the imperial palace, specifically the Right Silver Terrace Gate, where he had a personal meeting with the emperor and received the imperial edict from the Zhongshumenxia, an administrative bureau. On the twenty-fourth day of the same month, he set out and spent the night at the Chang Le Station.

The following day, which was the twenty-fifth day of the seventh month, the emperor issued an order for the promotion of Prajña, granting him the well-deserved title of “Prajña Tripiṭaka” and presenting him with a purple robe. On the twenty-seventh day, the emperor continued to send messengers to provide Prajña’s mission with ten catties of assorted medicinal materials. Prajña resumed his journey the next morning, following a route that passed through Khuihuk, Beiting, Zhenxi, Persia, and finally reached India. It is noteworthy that at this time, Prajña was fifty-seven years old. (T55, no. 2156, vol. 1, 757)

5.3 The Factors of the Emergence of Prajña’s Translation Team

5.3.1 The Trend of Elite Translation Teams

Prajña and Liyan employed an exceptional translation approach for the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya, utilizing an elite translation team. Despite the sūtra’s brevity, the chief translators implemented a structured approach, assigning specific roles to each team member. These experienced translators, who had previously served in translation teams, combined their extensive expertise in translating Buddhist scriptures to form a highly skilled group dedicated to sacred text translation. This translation model aligns with the longstanding tradition of elite translation teams since the early Tang era.

During the early Tang Dynasty, renowned translators like Prabhākaramitra, Xuanzang, and Yijing embraced the concept of the “elite translation team.” Prabhākaramitra formed a team of nineteen experts from various backgrounds, summoned by the imperial court during the Zhenguan era. Xuanzang, upon his return from India, refined and inherited Prabhākaramitra’s collaborative translation team (T50, no. 2060, vol. 3, 440). With Emperor Taizong’s support, Xuanzang established a translation team that set the standard for the Tang Dynasty. He introduced a new translation process that ensured both the quantity and quality of sūtra translations. Xuanzang’s ideas on building translation teams continue to provide valuable insights for contemporary translation practices (T50, no. 2053, vol. 6, 253). Similarly, during the Wu Zhou period, Yijing’s elite translation team also played a significant role. Each member had specific responsibilities, including verifying Sanskrit meanings, copying, text and meaning verification, supervision, and transcription (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 568).

These historical examples illustrate the prevalence of forming elite translation teams during the early Tang, which persisted until the reign of Emperor Dezong. The collaborative translation model was not only applied to the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya but also to numerous Buddhist scriptures translated during the Zhenyuan era.

5.3.2 The Historical Role of Translator Monks in National Affairs in Tang China

The translation process of the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya by Prajña and Liyan was marked by their simultaneous involvement in state affairs, a characteristic deeply rooted in the traditions of the Tang Dynasty. During this period, translator monks often had to balance their religious and secular responsibilities.

During that era, translators were tasked not only with the translation of Buddhist scriptures but also with the management of secular matters and royal commands. This dual role presented challenges as it diverted their attention from their translation work. A notable example can be seen during the reign of Emperor Taizong when monks, including the renowned Xuanzang, were frequently summoned to the palace. These summons encompassed discussions not only on Buddhist doctrines but also on state affairs. Taizong even went so far as to request Xuanzang to abandon his monastic life and join the court, a proposal that Xuanzang declined. Nevertheless, Xuanzang occasionally carried out the emperor’s orders, which inevitably disrupted his translation projects (T50, no. 2053, vol. 6, 255).

Under Emperor Xuanzong’s rule, translators became even more involved in royal missions. The emperor often enlisted monks, including translators, for tasks unrelated to their religious duties, such as providing omens for the country. Eminent monks like Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, who introduced esoteric teachings during Xuanzong’s reign, had to strike a delicate balance between their religious responsibilities and the special tasks assigned by the emperor. For instance, Śubhakarasiṃha was urgently summoned to perform rain prayers during a heatwave, while Vajrabodhi was entrusted with the construction of altars and the conduction of rituals for various purposes (T50, no. 2061, vol. 1, 711 & vol. 2, 715). Amoghavajra, in addition to translating Tantric scriptures, played a role in mitigating national crises and providing intelligence during the An Lushan Rebellion (T52, no. 2120, vol. 1, 828).

These examples illustrate how, apart from their primary role in sūtra translation, monks in the Tang Dynasty were frequently called upon to assist in managing court affairs, royal matters, and special assignments from the emperor. These additional duties sometimes hindered their translation work, becoming a common phenomenon and a tradition during that era. This tradition continued during the period under Emperor Dezong’s reign. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the weakened Tang Dynasty faced threats from powerful Western neighbors, particularly Tibet. Dezong sought to utilize the knowledge of Prajña to negotiate with the Uyghurs, form alliances, and strategize against Tibet. Thus, Prajña’s dual role as a translator and a special envoy to North India demonstrated the tradition of monks serving not only as Buddhist translators but also as diplomatic assets to the court (T55, no. 2156, vol. 1, 757 & T55, no. 2157, vol. 17, 893).

5.3.3 The Strategy of Bolstering Imperial Authority Through the Process of Sūtra Translation

The translation of the Longer Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya by Prajña and Liyan took place in an era deeply influenced by Buddhism. Emperor Dezong, recognizing the immense popularity of Buddhism, saw an opportunity to consolidate his imperial power by integrating it into the process of sūtra translation. His approach involved incorporating rituals and ceremonies that went beyond the mere translation of texts. The activities encompassed various ceremonial events: initiations for the sūtras, presentations of newly completed translations, and intricate rituals involving sūtra recitations and blessings.

A notable example of Dezong’s approach can be seen in the initiation of the Sūtra of the Six Pāramitā. The emperor organized a grand procession, with a sizable contingent of the imperial army escorting the Sanskrit version of the sūtra to the designated translation site. The procession was accompanied by musicians, creating a captivating spectacle, and lavish gifts were granted to Prajña and other translators, emphasizing the magnificence of the event (T55, no. 2156, vol. 1, 756).

Following the translation of the the Sūtra of the Six Pāramitā, monks from the Ximing Monastery, led by Liangxiu 良秀, requested a grand Dharma assembly. Their intention was to create an atmosphere of solemnity by illuminating the Dharma venue with ten thousand lamps and reciting sūtras such as the Renwang Borejing and other Prajñāpāramitā texts as prayers for national blessings. The scale of this event was equally impressive (T55, no. 2157, vol. 17, 892).

In the fourteenth year of Zhengyuan (798), Prajña’s team completed a new translation of the Avataṃsakasūtra 華嚴經 at the royal translation site. This forty-volume translation was presented to the court in a formal manner. Officials, including Huo Xianming 霍仙鳴 (?-798), placed the translated works in an ornate treasure box, adorned with fragrant flowers (T10, no. 293, vol. 40, 848–849 & T55, no. 2157, vol. 17, 895). Emperor Dezong would then review and distribute the texts, reaffirming his central role in the sūtra translation process.

These grand events attracted participation from officials and civilians throughout the country, reinforcing the Tang Dynasty’s position as a prominent global power. It was a crucial element of Dezong’s strategy to utilize the sponsorship of Buddhist sūtra translation to enhance his imperial mandate and stabilize the nation, which was experiencing the capture of different parts of the empire by numerous warlords after the Anshi Rebellion.

In essence, Emperor Dezong aimed to merge the translation of Buddhist sūtras with the promotion of imperial authority, thereby showcasing the court’s reverence for Buddhism and its embrace of divine and popular blessings. This approach elucidates the inclusion of procedures unrelated to mere language conversion, such as monks’ presentations and the imperial announcement of the new translation, in the process of translating the expanded version of the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya by Prajña’s elite translation team. Furthermore, it underscored the fact that all scripture translations required the emperor’s endorsement before dissemination in China. By actively participating in the translation process, Dezong emphasized the authority of the national monarch, elevating his prestige and intertwining the propagation of Buddhism with the consolidation of political power—a trend that grew increasingly pronounced during the late Tang era.

5.3.4 Post-Prajña Era: The Resurgence of Sūtra Translation in the Song Dynasty

Following Prajña’s translation work, Buddhism in China faced significant challenges in the subsequent era. Emperor Wuzong’s persecution of Buddhism, along with societal upheavals, dealt a severe blow to the religion. Furthermore, the waning power of the Tang Dynasty resulted in the decline of elite translation teams, leaving only isolated translation activities carried out by small groups or individuals. It was only after the unification of China under the Song Dynasty that team-based Buddhist scripture translation experienced a revival.

Taking inspiration from the elite translation system of the Tang Dynasty, the Song court established the Dharma Transmission Court, ushering in a revival of collaborative sūtra translation that flourished for a century.Footnote 1 The Fozutongji 佛祖統紀 (A Chronicle of Buddhism in China) from the Song Dynasty offers valuable insights into the establishment and operation of the Dharma Transmission Court, shedding light on the division of labor in sūtra translation (T49, no. 2035, vol. 43, 398) (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1 Roles and responsibilities of translation collaborators of the Dharma Transmission Court as described in the Fozutongji 佛祖統紀
Full size table

5.4 Concluding Remarks

The translation of the expanded Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya by Prajña and Liyan’s team during the late Tang dynasty illustrates the resilience of Buddhist scripture translation amidst political turmoil. Despite instability after the An Lushan rebellion, Emperor Dezong’s support enabled the persistence of translation efforts.

Prajña’s team combined experienced translators in specialized roles to efficiently produce high-quality translations. Their workflow balanced translation duties with court obligations, speaking to the era’s tradition of monk translators serving both religious and state needs. Though complex, this model enabled the continued circulation of Buddhist teachings.

The emergence of Prajña’s elite team stemmed from several key factors—the prevalence of small expert teams, monks’ dual political-religious roles, and the strategy of intertwining imperial power with Buddhism. Together, these elements shaped an adaptive translation approach for the precarious times.

This examination of Prajña’s team provides a window into the ingenuity and dedication that enabled scripture translation to thrive in the face of adversity. Their legacy set the stage for a revival of collaborative translation under the subsequent Song Dynasty. This highlights the profound significance of translation in upholding spiritual and cultural continuity, even during times of instability.

The late Tang era stands as evidence of how supportive rulers and committed translators preserved the transmission of Buddhist ideas. As Prajña’s team demonstrated, cooperation, skill, and adaptability can overcome considerable challenges. Their steadfast efforts in the face of turmoil showcased translation’s power to uplift society during difficult transitions.