The Golden Age: Tang Translation Initiatives in Full Swing

Abstract

This chapter studies the collective sūtra translation activities during the reigns of Emperors Gaozong and Daizong, often considered the zenith of Tang Buddhism. Six well-known translation teams organized by Divākara, Devaprajña, Śikṣānanda, Yijing, Bodhiruci, and Amoghavajra are examined one by one to reveal how they fostered the advancement of the elite translation model established by their forebears and navigated the political and social landscapes of their time to facilitate the translation projects of Buddhist texts. By exploring the organization, capabilities, and influence of the translation teams, this chapter also explains the complexity of translation and the extraordinary level of imperial support during this period.

The previous chapter shed light on the groundbreaking activities of Prabhākaramitra and Xuanzang in establishing elite translation teams, marking a significant milestone in the collaborative translation history of the Tang Dynasty. Their methodologies not only laid the groundwork for a robust imperial translation system but also aligned with the practical objectives of the Tang rulers, effectively incorporating the best elements of earlier models.

In this chapter, the narrative progresses to the period encompassing the reigns of Emperor Gaozong 高宗 (628–683, reigned 649–683) and Emperor Daizong 代宗 (726–779, reigned 762–779). Often referred to as the golden age of Buddhist scripture translation, this era witnessed team-based translation efforts reaching unprecedented levels of activity and sophistication, building upon the foundation established by Prabhākaramitra and Xuanzang. Notably, six distinguished Buddhist monks—Divākara, Devaprajña, Śikṣānanda, Yijing, Bodhiruci, and Amoghavajra—took center stage during this period. They not only translated a vast array of texts but also further refined the structured team-based model initiated by their predecessors. Their leadership and visionary approach played a significant role in the development and implementation of a formalized and efficient translation system.

4.1 Divākara’s Elite Translation Team

Under the charismatic leadership of Divākara 地婆訶羅 (614–688), the translation model pioneered by Prabhākaramitra and Xuanzang continued to flourish and evolve. Originating from Central India, Divākara exhibited exceptional mastery of the five vidyās and a profound understanding of the four Āgama scriptures. His expertise in incantation methods further set him apart in his field. During the Yifeng 儀鳳 era of Emperor Gaozong (676–679), Divākara embarked on a journey to China, undertaking the noble task of translating Buddhist sūtras. His translation work persisted under the reign of Empress Wu Zetian 武則天 (624–705, reigned 690–705), during which he successfully translated over ten Buddhist scriptures at the Eastern and Western Taiyuan Monasteries (Dong, Xi Taiyuansi 東、西太原寺), as well as at the Hongfu Monastery (Hongfusi 弘福寺). The official elite translation court lent its support to Divākara’s translation initiatives, underscoring the significance and prestige of his work.

A historical record from the Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu 開元釋教錄 (Record of Śākyamuniʼs Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period) provides us with insights into the meticulous five-step process that characterized the operations of Divākara’s translation court:

During Emperor Gaozong’s Yifeng era and Empress Wu Zetian’s Chuigong era, a total of eighteen scriptures, including the Bhadrapalāśreṣṭhiparipṛcchāsūtra, were translated. The primary translation activities took place at the Taiyuan Monasteries in the Eastern and Western Capitals, known today as the Dafuxian Monastery and the Xichongfu Monastery, respectively. The Hongfu Monastery in the Western Capital also served as a translation site. The initial language translation was conducted by Jiantuo and Prajñādeva, while Huizhi ensured the accuracy of the Sanskrit text. Ten individuals of great virtue were summoned by royal decree to assist in the propagation of Dharma. Monks such as Daocheng, Bochen, Jiashang, Yuance, Lingbian, Mingxun, and Huaide were entrusted with verifying the interpretations. Sixuan and Fulai played crucial roles in refining the text and finalizing the translations. Empress Wu personally penned introductions for each sūtra, affirming their authenticity and facilitating their widespread dissemination. (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 564)

The first step of the translation process involved Divākara, as the chief translator, reciting the original sūtra. In the second step, monks Zhantuo 戰陀 and Prajñādeva 般若提婆 interpreted the sūtra into Chinese based on Divākara’s recitation, a process known as “translating language” (Yiyu 譯語). The third step included Huizhi 慧智’s preliminary proofreading to verify the Sanskrit, supported by the “Ten Virtuous Individuals” (Mingdeshiren 名德十人) summoned to contribute to the dissemination of the Dharma. In the fourth step, a team of translators led by monks Daocheng 道成, Bochen 薄塵, Jiashang 嘉尚, Yuance 圓測 (613–696), Lingbian 靈辯, Mingxun 明恂, Huaidu 懷度, and others engaged in a second round of proofreading, known as “verifying the meaning” (Zhengyi 證義). The fifth step encompassed “refining the text” (Zhuiwen 綴文) and “transcribing the translation” (Bishou 筆受), where the translation was distilled to its essence by eliminating unnecessary elements. Monks Sixuan 思玄 and Fuli 復禮 oversaw this finalization process. Empress Wu’s personal composition of the sūtra introductions marked the culmination of the translation, guaranteeing their authenticity and readiness for dissemination.

This overview sheds light on the foundational structure of Divākara’s translation court, an embodiment of the collaborative translation model established by Prabhākaramitra and Xuanzang. It exemplifies the dedication and cooperation necessary for successful translation pursuits during that era.

4.2 Devaprajña’s Elite Translation Team

During the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, a distinguished translation organization flourished under the leadership of Devaprajña 提雲般若, forming yet another elite translation team. Hailing from the Kingdom of Yutian, Devaprajña possessed profound knowledge of both Mahāyāna and Theravāda Buddhism, as well as expertise in Chan practices and the art of incantation.

In the year 689, during the Yongchang永昌 era, Devaprajña embarked on a mission to bring Buddhist teachings to China. His exceptional translation skills were recognized, leading to his appointment at the Eastern Monastery of the Great Zhou Dynasty (Dazhoudongsi 大周東寺), where he undertook the task of translating Buddhist scriptures. His diligent efforts resulted in the production of numerous treatises and sacred texts, with detailed records of his contributions preserved in the Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu 開元釋教錄 (Record of Śākyamuniʼs Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period) as follows:

Devaprajña, known as “Heavenly Wisdom” in the Tang language, hailed from Yutian. His vast knowledge encompassed both the Mahāyāna and Theravāda traditions of Buddhism, combining profound spiritual wisdom with a deep understanding of secular matters. He had attained mastery in Chan practices and the art of incantation. In the inaugural year of Empress Wu’s reign, the Yongchang era, he arrived and was granted an audience with the Empress in Luoyang. Subsequently, he was commissioned to translate scriptures at the Eastern Monastery of the Wei State, which was later renamed the Eastern Monastery of the Great Zhou Dynasty. From the first year of Yongchang to the second year of the Tianshou era, he successfully translated six scriptures and treatises. His team consisted of renownded monks such as Zhantuo and Huizhi, responsible for translating the languages, while Chu Yi carefully transcribed the translations. Others, including Fuli, contributed literary refinements to the texts, while scholars such as De Gan, Hui Yan, Fa Ming, and Hong Jing verified the meanings and ensured the accuracy of the translations. (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 565)

The operations of Devaprajña’s translation team closely resembled the model previously described. As the team leader, Devaprajña would commence by reciting the original Buddhist scriptures. Monks like Zhantuo 戰陀 and Huizhi 慧智 would then orally translate the recited contents into Chinese. The initial oral translation was subsequently recorded and edited by a group of dedicated monk translators. Chuyi 處—transcribed the translations, while Fuli 復禮 and others refined the text, adding literary embellishments when necessary. Respected monk scholars such as Degan 德感, Huiyan 慧儼, Faming 法明, and Hongjing 弘景 (634–712) diligently validated the meanings and conducted thorough proofreading of the final version. This collaborative process, a hallmark of the distinguished royal elite translation teams of the Tang Dynasty, ensured the production of authoritative and accurate translations.

4.3 Śikṣānanda’s Elite Translation Team

During the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, one of the most remarkable translation initiatives was led by Śikṣānanda 實叉難陀 (652–710). Hailing from Khotan, Śikṣānanda was a revered monk proficient in both the Greater and Lesser Vehicles of Buddhism. His life’s purpose was to disseminate the Dharma for the benefit of all sentient beings. This shared devotion to Buddhism forged a profound bond between Śikṣānanda and Empress Wu, particularly regarding the Avataṃsakasūtra 華嚴經, a text that had yet to be fully translated into Chinese.

To acquire the original texts and invite knowledgeable translators to China, Empress Wu dispatched envoys to the Western Regions, and Śikṣānanda was among those invited. In the year 695, during the inaugural year of the Zhengsheng 證聖 era, Śikṣānanda arrived in Guanzhong. He was stationed at the prestigious Great Universal Void Monastery (Dabiankongsi 大遍空寺) in the Eastern Capital, entrusted with the momentous task of translating the 80-volume Avataṃsakasūtra. This marked the first major project undertaken by Śikṣānanda and his elite translation team.

The royal family extended unwavering support to Śikṣānanda’s translation efforts. Historical records, including sūtra prefaces, provide vivid details about the translation process, offering a glimpse into the grand collaborative translation efforts of the time. In Empress Wu’s composed preface to Avataṃsakasūtra, she wrote:

I have heard of its Sanskrit version, which was first found in the country of Khotan. I sent envoys to welcome it, and it has recently arrived here. After seeing its wonderful praises in the hundreds and thousands, it was as if I were unrolling the main text of ten thousand. On the fourteenth day of the first year of the Zhengsheng era, I personally received and revised the translation of this sūtra at the Great Universal Void Monastery. Consequently, I obtained the sweet dew of the river of wisdom, and I dreamt of it on the eve of Gengshen; the anointing rain was sprinkling and moistening, which happened later on the morning of the date Renxu. Thus, the door of true form was opened, to comply with the essence of the One Taste. On the eighth day of the tenth month of the second year of the Shengli era, the copy of the sūtra was finalized. (T10, no. 279, vol. 1, 1)

The Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu 開元釋教錄 (Record of Śākyamuniʼs Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period) also provides a comprehensive account:

In the first year of the Zhengsheng era of the Empress Wu, the translation of the Avataṃsakasūtra took place at the Great Universal Void Monastery in the Eastern Capital. Empress Wu herself presided over the Dharma seat, wrote the preface, and bestowed the title upon the text. South Indian monks Bodhiruci and Yijing eloquently recited the original Sanskrit text, which was subsequently handed over to monks such as Fuli and Fazang for further translation at the Monastery of the Buddha’s Enlightening Teachings. The task was completed in the second year of the Shengli era. (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 566)

These historical records indicate that Empress Wu took an active role in the translation process, bestowing titles on each section of the sūtra herself. Monks Bodhiruci 菩提流志 (?–727) and Yijing 義淨 (635–713) recited the original Sanskrit text, while monks like Fuli 復禮 and Fazang 法藏 (643–712) refined the translations. The final version was disseminated in the second year of the Shengli era (699).

Following the successful translation of the Avataṃsakasūtra, Empress Wu continued to lend her support to Śikṣānanda’s elite translation team. They embarked on the translation of numerous sūtras at the Sanyang Palace (Sanyanggong 三陽宮), the Qichan Monastery (Qizhansi 清禪寺) in the Western Capital, and the Shouji Monastery (Shoujisi 授記寺) in the Eastern Capital. The team consisted of eniment monks and court officials. Monk translators such as Bolun 波崙 and Xuangui 玄軌 transcribed the texts, while monks like Fuli 復禮 composed the translations. Fabao 法寶 and Hongjing 弘景 (634–712) ensured the accuracy of the meanings. Furthermore, Jia Yingfu 賈膺福 (?–713), a member of the Middle House of the Prince, supervised the translation process, organized the translation site, and provided necessary resources to the team. The Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu 開元釋教錄 (Record of Śākyamuniʼs Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period) provides a detailed account as follows:

In the first year of the Jiushi era, the Laṅkāvatārasūtra was translated at the Sanyang Palace, and other sūtras such as the Gathering of Mañjuśrī’s Profound Teachings were translated at the Qizhan Monastery in the Western Capital and the Shouji Monastery in the Eastern Capital. Jia Yingfu oversaw all translation work. Monks Bolun and Xuangui transcribed the texts, Fuli composed the translations, and monks including Fabao and Hongjing validated the meanings of the translations. (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 566)

Śikṣānanda’s Elite Translation Team stands as a testament to the grandeur and systematic organization of the translation efforts during that era. Under the direct supervision and support of Empress Wu herself, the team produced some of the most influential Buddhist texts in China, leaving an indelible impact on Chinese Buddhism and culture. The operations of this elite translation team offer a captivating glimpse into the intricate process of translating and disseminating Buddhist texts during the Great Tang period. Moreover, it exemplifies Empress Wu Zetian’s profound respect and reverence for Buddhism, which played an essential role in the spread and development of Buddhism in China throughout her reign.

4.4 Yijing’s Elite Translation Team

Yijing’s translation organization, which operated during the reigns of Empress Wu, Emperors Zhongzong 中宗 (656–710, reigned 684/705–710) and Ruizong 睿宗 (662–716, reigned 684–690/710–712), was a distinguished and influential elite translation court in the Great Tang era. Yijing, a native of Qizhou, became a monk in his youth. He diligently sought renowned teachers, immersed himself in the practice of Buddhism, and developed a deep love for reading. His extensive knowledge encompassed a wide range of ancient and contemporary scriptures, both from China and abroad, showcasing his exceptional intellect.

At the young age of fifteen, Yijing set his sights on a journey to the West in search of the profound teachings of Buddhism. During the early years of Emperor Gaozong’s Xianheng 咸亨 era (670–674), Yijing and his companions embarked on a sea voyage from Guangzhou to India. Their voyage took them through numerous countries, traversing vast distances over a span of two decades. Eventually, in the first year of the Zhengsheng era of Empress Wu’s reign (695), Yijing and his companions returned to Guanzhong, bringing with them a multitude of invaluable Buddhist scriptures and sacred relics. Empress Wu held Yijing in high esteem, recognizing the significance of his achievements.

Upon Yijing’s return to China, he initially took up residence at the Monastery of the Buddha’s Enlightening Teachings (Foshoujisi 佛授記寺), where he carefully stored the newly acquired Sanskrit scriptures. During this time, he collaborated with Śikṣānanda in translating the Avataṃsakasūtra. It is worth noting that Yijing did not yet have an independent translation team at that stage. It was only after a considerable period that he commenced independent translation work.

4.4.1 The Early Phase (700–703)

During the Jiushi 久視 era of Empress Wu, with the unwavering support of the imperial court, Yijing established his first translation team on a grand scale. This translation team undertook the significant task of translating numerous Buddhist classics that had been newly brought from the West, including a substantial collection of Vinaya scriptures. The paratexts of translated scriptures bear explicit documentation of Yijing’s establishment and involvement in their creation.

The team-based translation efforts led by Yijing can be divided into four distinct periods. The first period commenced in the inaugural year of the Jiushi era (700) and concluded in the third year of the Chang’an 長安 era (703). During this time, the team diligently translated twenty Buddhist scriptures, including notable works such as the Suvarṇaprabhāsauttamarājasūtra 金光明最勝王經 and the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā 能斷金剛般若經.

Yijing, possessing a command of both Sanskrit and Chinese, served as the chief translator. The North Indian monk, Maṇicintana 阿儞真那 (?–721), assumed the responsibility of verifying the Sanskrit text’s intended meaning. Accompanying them were a group of dedicated monks, including Polun 波崙, Fuli 復禮, Huibiao 慧表, and Zhiji 智積, who collectively transcribed and verified the translated text. Eminent monk translators such as Fabao 法寶, Fazang 法藏, Degan 德感, Chengzhuang 成莊, Shenying 神英, Renliang 仁亮, Dayi 大儀, and Cixun 慈訓 rigorously examined and verified the accuracy and significance of the translations.

Supervising the translation court was Xu Guan 許觀, the assistant teacher of the Chengjun National Academy. Xu Guan oversaw the process of copying the translated texts and presented the completed translations to Empress Wu for her personal review and the composition of prefaces. Historical records indicate that “the Empress composed the “Preface to the Newly Translated Holy Teachings,” which was placed at the beginning of the translation” (天后製〈新翻聖教序〉，令標經首) (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 568).

4.4.2 The Middle Phase (703 Onwards)

Following the successful translation of the aforementioned Buddhist scriptures, Yijing’s translation team embarked on three additional periods of translation, each marked by further refinement and sophistication. During this time, the translation team undertook the translation of multiple significant Buddhist scriptures such as Mahāmāyūrividyārājñīsūtra 孔雀王經, Rājāvavādakasūtra 佛為勝光天子說王法經, and Sarvadharmaguṇavyūharājasūtra 佛說一切功德莊嚴王經. These translations took place at the Imperial Dharma Hall (Neidaochang 內道場) in the Eastern Capital and the Dafuxian Monastery (Dafuxiansi 大福先寺).

The translation process involved a collaborative effort. Pandu 盤度 was entrusted with reading the Sanskrit text, while Xuansan 玄傘 received and transcribed the text. Dayi 大儀 verified the accuracy of the text, while Shengzhuang 勝莊, Lizhen 利貞, and others ensured the fidelity of the translations’ meaning. Cui Shi崔湜 (671–713), the Minister of the Ministry of War, and Lu Can 盧粲 (?–713), his assistant, contributed their expertise by refining the text and correcting any inaccuracies in the characters. Overseeing the entire translation endeavor was Yang Shenjiao 楊慎交 (675–728), the Grand Supervisor of the Secretariat and Prince of the State (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 568).

The translated version of the Sarvadharmaguṇavyūharājasūtra 佛說一切功德莊嚴王經 bore a comprehensive list of the translators and their respective responsibilities, showcasing their individual roles and collective effort (T21, no. 1374, 894). This marked the second period of Yijing’s collaborative translation activities. Shortly thereafter, a new translation of the Saptatathāgatapūrvapraṇidhānaviśeṣavistarasūtra 藥師琉璃光七佛本願功德經 was produced, personally received by Emperor Zhongzong himself, underscoring the significance and recognition bestowed upon Yijing’s translation efforts.

4.4.3 The Key Phase (710)

In the fourth year of the Jinglong 景龍 era (710), Yijing received a prestigious commission to translate scriptures at the Great Blessings Monastery (Dajianfusi 大薦福寺). This endeavor encompassed a comprehensive collection of twenty parts of scriptures. The translation project involved the dedicated efforts of numerous assistants, each playing a vital role in the process.

The Tocharian monk Damomomo 達磨末磨 and the Indo-Middle Eastern monk Banu 拔弩 contributed their expertise by confirming the meanings of the Sanskrit text. The Khotan monk Dharmananda 達磨難陀 verified the accuracy of the Sanskrit original, while the layman and East Indian chief Īśvara 伊舍羅 provided further confirmation of the Sanskrit source. Monks such as Huiji 慧積, the Indo-Middle Eastern layman Li Shijia 李釋迦, and Duopoduo 度頗多, among others, attentively recited the Sanskrit text. Monks Wengang 文綱 (636–727), Huizhu 慧沼 (652–715), Lizhen 利貞, Shengzhuang 勝莊, Aitong 愛同, and Siheng 思恒 (651–726), among others, verified the meanings. Xuansan 玄傘, Zhiji 智積, and others transcribed the translation. Laymen such as the East Indian Gautamavajra 瞿曇金剛 and the prince from Kasmira, Ashun 阿順, provided confirmation of the translation (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 568–569).

Furthermore, more than twenty individuals, including Li Jiao 李嶠, Duke of Zhao State and Academician of Xiuwen Academy, Wei Sili 韋嗣立 (654–719), Minister of the Ministry of War and Duke of Xiaoyao, Zhao Yanzhao 趙彥昭, Lu Zangyong 盧藏用 (664–713), Zhang Shuo 張說 (667–713), Li Ai 李乂 (649–716), and Su Ting 蘇頲 (670–727), contributed to the revision of the text. The translation process was overseen by Left Attendant Wei Juyuan 韋巨源 (631–710), Duke of Shu State, Right Attendant Su Gui 蘇瓌 (639–710), Duke of Xu State, and others. Li Yong 李邕 (687–727), Grand Supervisor of the Secretariat and King Siguo, provided valuable support throughout the translation process. This marked the third period of translation activities, characterized by the involvement of a diverse and dedicated group of individuals (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 568–569).

Also, existing translations of Yijing’s works, such as the Mūlasarvāstivādanidānamātṛkā 根本說一切有部尼陀那目得迦 (T24, no. 1452, vol. 1, 418–419), Mūlasarvāstivādavinayanidānamātṛkākārikā 根本說一切有部毘奈耶尼陀那目得迦攝頌 (T24, no. 1456, 520), and the Treatise on the Manifestation of the Treasury of Consciousness-Only 成唯識寶生論 (T31, no. 1591, vol. 1, 81), provide detailed descriptions of the translators involved and their specific roles.

4.4.4 The Final Phase (711)

By the second year of the Jingyun 景雲 era under Emperor Ruizong (711), Yijing’s team successfully concluded their final elite translation project at the Great Blessings Monastery. This initiative resulted in the production of various sūtras, commentaries, and praises dedicated to the Buddha. Historical records state:

In the second year of Jingyun, at the Great Blessings Monastery, Yijing translated sūtras such as the Dvādaśabuddhakasūtra, Sāgaranāgarājaparipṛcchāsūtra, Abbreviated Precepts, as well as commentaries such as the Verses on the Perfection of Wisdom that Cuts Off All Defilements, Explanation on the Door to the Principles of Inference, Verses on the Observation of General Characteristics, Verses on the Door to Sustained Observation, Treatise on Handheld Implements, and others. Moreover, Yijing translated one hundred and five praises related to the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka and Pramāṇasamuccaya. In total, he translated twelve works comprising twenty-one scrolls of Buddhist scriptures. (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 569)

In this translation undertaking, Yijing served as the chief translator, and monks like Halimadi 曷利末底 and Uditipo 烏帝提婆 were entrusted with reciting the Sanskrit text. Monks Xuansan 玄傘, Zhiji 智積, and others transcribe the translation, while Huizhu 慧沼 and other scholars confirmed the intended meanings. The Minister of the Ministry of Rites, Xue Chongyin 薛崇胤 (?–713), provided crucial support and guardianship throughout the process.

In summary, Yijing’s four periods of translation, as discussed above, played a significant role in advancing the development of the elite collaboration model. The process of translating sūtras became more refined and precise, with a detailed division of labor and a stringent review system. The translation work involved extensive scrutiny of both the original and translated texts, and it witnessed an unprecedented involvement of monks and laymen, including lay princes from the Western Regions who assisted in verifying the accuracy of the sūtras. This demonstrates that during that time, frequent and close exchanges between China and foreign countries were commonplace, and the translation of Buddhist scriptures served as a vital bridge for communication between the East and the West.

Moreover, the elite translation system of the Tang Dynasty was further refined and systematized at this juncture, approaching a state of maturity and perfection. It entailed a grand-scale operation with a well-defined structure of sūtra translation. Notably, the method of collaboration observed in the later generations’ “Dharma Transmission Court” (Chuanfayuan 傳法院) of the Song Dynasty bears a striking resemblance to the translation practices of the Tang Dynasty, showcasing the enduring influence and legacy of this translation model.

4.5 Bodhiruci’s Elite Translation Team

Bodhiruci 菩提流志 (?–727), originally named “Dharmaruci” 達摩流支, was a distinguished South Indian Brahmin who made significant contributions to the team-based Buddhist scripture translation during the reign of Empress Wu and the restoration of Emperor Ruizong. Recognized for his exceptional intellect and profound knowledge across various disciplines, including cosmology, calendar systems, geography, astronomy, sorcery, and medicine, Empress Wu bestowed upon him the name “Bodhiruci.” This new name symbolized his remarkable intellectual capabilities.

Bodhiruci’s deep curiosity and quest for knowledge led him to immerse himself in the study of Buddhism. Astoundingly, within a span of just five years, he mastered the Tripiṭaka, the sacred scriptures of Buddhism. His scholarly achievements did not go unnoticed by the Tang court during Emperor Gaozong’s reign. Upon hearing of Bodhiruci’s renowned reputation, envoys were dispatched to invite him to the capital.

In the second year of Empress Wu’s Changshou 長壽 era (693), Bodhiruci arrived at the capital and was tasked with the important task of translating sacred scriptures. This commission served as evidence of his erudition and the Tang court’s acknowledgment of his exceptional skills.

Bodhiruci’s translation projects were primarily supported by the elite translation team. These collaborative translation projects, most notably the Ratnameghasūtra 佛說寶雨經 (T16, no. 660, vol. 2, 292) and Mahāratnakūṭa 大寶積經 (T11, no. 310, vol. 1, 1–2), offer a comprehensive account of the translation activities under his supervision. Upon his arrival in China, Bodhiruci established his residence at the Monastery of the Buddha’s Enlightening Teachings (Foshoujisi 佛授記寺), where he commenced the translation of the Ratnameghasūtra. Valuable insights into the composition and division of labor within Bodhiruci’s team can be gleaned from records found in the Shōgozō version of the Ratnameghasūtra (Maiko, 2015) and the Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu 開元釋教錄 (Record of Śākyamuniʼs Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period) (Maiko, 2015 and T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 570).

The translation process was conducted with methodical diligence, comprising fifteen distinct tasks ranging from text processing and scripture translation to proofreading, editing, and scripture management. Significantly, certain roles within the translation team were unprecedented and required the expertise of specialized individuals, including both monks and laypeople. This arrangement exemplified the early collaborative translation methods that were implemented upon Bodhiruci’s arrival.

Bodhiruci, after relocating to various monasteries such as the Eastern Monastery of the Great Zhou Dynasty (Dazhoudongsi 大周東寺) and the West Chongfu Monastery (Xichongfusi 西崇福寺), dedicated himself to the translation of a wide range of Buddhist scriptures. Particularly, he undertook the translation of the significant Mahāyāna scripture known as the Mahāratnakūṭa, which was a notable project of the elite translation team during the era of Empress Wu. It is worth mentioning that the sūtra had its origins in the early Tang Dynasty during Xuanzang’s time. Initially, Xuanzang began the translation of the monumental 600-volume the Mahāprajñāpāramitāsūtra 大般若經, which led to requests for the translation of the the Mahāratnakūṭa (T50, no. 2053, vol. 10, 276). However, due to his advanced age, Xuanzang was unable to complete the task, and it was subsequently undertaken and accomplished by Bodhiruci.

Historical records indicate that prior to the collaborative translation of the Mahāratnakūṭa, extensive preparatory work was undertaken by the Tang court and Bodhiruci himself. The court issued specific orders to gather scholars of renowned virtue and select individuals with exceptional moral integrity to participate in the translation process. Their responsibilities included reviewing existing translations and comparing them with the new original texts. The aim was to preserve accurate portions of the old translations while supplementing and completing any incomplete sections based on the original text. This comprehensive review and translation process sought to unveil and clarify any meanings that may have been lost or distorted over time, thus establishing a robust translation strategy for the newly translated scriptures.

The translation of the Mahāratnakūṭa began in the second year of the Shenlong 神龍 era (706) and was completed in the second year of Ruizong’s Xiantian 先天 era (713). Emperor Zhongzong himself attended the inaugural translation session, lending his support to the translation project. Alongside him, a group of officials and members of the harem were present as observers, highlighting the significance placed on the translation of Buddhist scriptures by the Tang court. When Emperor Ruizong ascended to the throne, he also visited the translation site to actively contribute to the process, further emphasizing the court’s commitment to the project.

The collaborative translation model employed for the Mahāratnakūṭa bore similarities to Yijing’s translation venue and was executed on a grand scale. Historical records from works such as the “Dabaojijingshu” 大寶積經述 (“A Narration of the Mahāratnakūṭa”) (T11, no. 310, vol. 1, 1–2) and the Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu 開元釋教錄 (Record of Śākyamuniʼs Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period) (T55, no. 2154, vol. 9, 570) provide insights into the individuals involved in the translation process. Bodhiruci himself spearheaded the translation efforts. Monk translators such as Sizhong 思忠 and the East Indian leader Īśvara 伊舍羅 undertook the translation of the Sanskrit text, while South Indian monk Prajñākuta 波若屈多 and North Indian monk Dharma 達摩 reviewed the original text. Lüfang 履方, Huijue 慧覺, Zongyi 宗一, and Pujing 普敬 were responsible for the transcription of the translation, while monks like Chengli 承禮, Yunguan 雲觀, Shenjian 神暕, and Daoben 道本 took on the task of translation revision. Monks such as Shenliang 深亮, Shengzhuang 勝莊, Chenwai 塵外, Wuzhuo 無著, Huidi 慧迪, Huaidi 懷迪, and Fazang 法藏 verified its meanings.

Lu Can 盧粲 (?–713), Xu Jian 徐堅 (659–729), Su Jin 蘇晉 (676–734), Cui Qu 崔璩, Lu Cangyong 盧藏用 (664–713), Peng Jingzhi 彭景直, Wang Jun 王瑨, Yan Wenzhi 顏溫之, He Zhizhang 賀知章 (659–744), and others were involved in refining the text. They contributed their expertise to polish and enhance its quality. Furthermore, individuals such as Wei Zhigu 魏知古 (647–715), Guo Yuanzhen 郭元振 (656–713), Zhang Shuo 張說, Lu Xiangxian 陸象先 (665–736), Xue Chongyin 薛崇胤 (?–713), Yang Zhongsi 楊仲嗣, and others played crucial roles in overseeing the translation process and safeguarding its integrity, leaving a lasting impact on the Buddhist literary tradition of the time.

4.6 Amoghavajra’s Elite Translation Team

The translation work of Amoghavajra 不空 (705–774) took place during the reigns of Emperor Xuanzong 玄宗, Emperor Suzong 肅宗 (711–762, reigned 756–762), and Emperor Daizong 代宗 (726–779, reigned 762–779), spanning multiple periods of time.

Amoghavajra, hailing from India, developed a deep affinity for Buddhism from an early age. He left his home behind in pursuit of spiritual practice and became a devoted disciple of the renowned Buddhist monk Vajrabodhi 金剛智 (669–741). During the Kaiyuan 開元 era under Emperor Xuanzong’s reign (713–741), Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra journeyed to China to propagate the teachings of Buddhism. Amoghavajra’s role as an assistant translator to Vajrabodhi provided him with invaluable opportunities to practice and refine his skills in translating Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

In the nineteenth year of the Kaiyuan era (731), Vajrabodhi passed away. Amoghavajra then embarked on a sea voyage to the Western Regions, returning to India to deepen his studies in Tantric Buddhism. Conscientiously serving and immersing himself in the practice, he acquired a vast collection of Sanskrit scriptures. In the fifth year of the Tianbao 天寶 era (746), Amoghavajra returned to Chang’an to spread Buddhism.  His powerful mantras earned him fame within the imperial palace.

In the eighth year of Tianbao (749), Amoghavajra sought Emperor Xuanzong’s permission to return to his homeland. The emperor graciously granted this request. However, during his journey back, he fell ill and temporarily resided in Shaozhou. Despite this setback, he continued his translation work, undeterred by adversity. In the twelfth year of Tianbao (753), the Emperor summoned Amoghavajra back to the capital, providing generous support for him to resume his important translation campaigns.

In the fourteenth year of Tianbao (755), the Anshi Rebellion erupted, yet Amoghavajra steadfastly continued his translation work, persistently translating new sūtra and conducting ceremonies to accumulate merit for the Tang Dynasty and pray for the rebellion’s end. He also played a vital role in gathering information about the affected regions (T50, no. 2056, 292–294 and T55, no. 2157, vol. 15, 881). Throughout the reigns of Emperors Xuanzong, Suzong, and Daizong, Amoghavajra enjoyed immense trust and held in high regard. His contributions to Buddhism and unwavering dedication earned him great respect.

4.6.1 Hallmarks of Amoghavajra’s Translation Approach

Amoghavajra’s translation activities reached their zenith during the reigns of Suzong and Daizong. While his approach largely followed the existing translation model, it also exhibited distinct deviations from earlier collaborative translations. His method was characterized by three notable hallmarks:

• A. Purpose-driven translations: Amoghavajra’s translation endeavors were fundamentally aligned with the interests of the Tang Empire, focusing primarily on “resolving difficulties and calamities” (息難除災) (T55, no. 2154, vol. 15, 881) and “overcoming disasters” (度災禦難) (T52, no. 2120, vol. 1, 829). This purpose extended beyond the mere propagation of Buddhist philosophy, emphasizing the role of Buddhism in alleviating national challenges during times of crisis more prominently than in previous eras.

• B. Celebratory commemorations: Once the definitive versions of the newly translated Buddhist scriptures were established, they were often commemorated through grand ceremonies that invited broad public participation. Elaborate rituals based on the newly translated scriptures were conducted, sometimes involving the erection of large altars. This synthesis of collaborative translation and religious ceremonies surpassed the scale seen in earlier periods.

• C. Integration of rituals and chanting: Amoghavajra’s scriptures frequently incorporated Buddhist religious rituals and the recitation of sūtras. To ensure the seamless performance of post-translation chanting rituals with accurate pronunciation, novel roles were introduced at the translation site. These individuals were appointed to maintain the rhythmic cadence of Buddhist chants, a practice that was unprecedented.

An exemplary manifestation of these three characteristics is found in the collaborative translation of the Renwang Borejing 仁王般若經 (The Sūtra of the Benevolent Kings), spearheaded by Amoghavajra during the reigns of Suzong and Daizong.

4.6.2 The Team-Based Translation of the Renwang Borejing

The Renwang Borejing holds great reverence as a significant Buddhist text renowned for its protective powers. Emperors Suzong and Daizong were deeply influenced by this scripture, firmly believing in its potent capabilities. However, during their reigns, Amoghavajra raised concerns regarding the existing translations of the sūtra pointing out issues with linguistic accuracy and semantic integrity. In response, he proposed a comprehensive retranslation of the scripture (T55, no. 2157, vol. 15, 884).

Emperor Suzong wholeheartedly supported Amoghavajra’s initiative, hoping that this effort would help restore peace within the Tang Empire. He believed that the spiritual merits gained from translating the scriptures could alleviate the ongoing military unrest (T33, no. 1709, vol. 1, 430). As a result, the royal court mandated the formation of a proficient translation team, drawing scholars from the capital, to undertake this vital task. Eventually, seventeen translators were carefully selected for the project.

Historical records provide clear evidence of the division of labor within the translation team. Amoghavajra took on the task of translating the original Sanskrit text, while Fachong 法崇 verified the meaning of the Sanskrit. Liangbin 良賁 (717–777) served as the scribe and refined the text, with Zilin 子隣 providing assistance. Huigan 懷感, Jianzong 建宗, Feixi 飛錫, Yisong 義嵩, Qianzhen 潛真 (718–788), Daoye 道液, Zhaowu 趙悟, Yingzhen 應真, Guixing 歸性, Huiling 慧靈, and Huijing 慧靜 were responsible for verifying the meaning. Yuanji 圓寂 focused on Sanskrit pronunciation, Daolin 道林 performed the chanting of praises, and Yixiu 義秀 served as the proofreader. Hongzhao 弘照 checked and proofread the text, while court officials Ma Feng 馬奉, Yang Liquan 楊利全, Luo Fengxian 駱奉仙, Yu Chaoen 魚朝恩 (722–770), Chang Gun 常袞 (729–783), and Liu Zhen 柳枕 supervised the translation process. Emperor Daizong supported the translation and would “hold the old sūtra and help review the new version” (執舊經，對讀新本), assisting from the sidelines. Notably, the roles of “Sanskrit pronunciation” (Fanyin 梵音) and “singing praises” (zanbai 讚唄) represented new additions to the translation team, involving phonetics and sūtra chanting (T8, no. 246, vol. 1, 430 and T55, no. 2157, vol. 15, 884).

After the completion of the new translation of the Renwang Borejing, several post-translation tasks were undertaken. The first was a grand ceremony to honor the new sūtra. Emperor Daizong ordered imperial guards to prepare banners, flowers, canopies, and treasure cars, along with musicians from the Imperial Music Bureau, to gather at the Silver Terrace Gate and perform musical plays. A magnificent procession escorted the new sūtra from the palace, with military generals marching behind. The second task involved the propagation and prayer for blessings. Recognizing the transformative potential of practicing the newly translated sūtra, Emperor Daizong funded Amoghavajra and his monks to organize numerous Dharma assemblies at the Zisheng and Ximing Monasteries, widely disseminating the new translation and praying for the Buddha’s teachings to bring stability to the country. These Dharma assemblies were accompanied by offerings of incense, flowers, food and drink, as well as drums and music (T55, no. 2156, vol. 1, 751–752).

These activities reflect the three major characteristics of Amoghavajra’s elite translation team mentioned earlier. Furthermore, they demonstrate that the collaborative translation of Buddhist scriptures during the mid-Tang Dynasty went beyond a mere cultural task. It was intertwined with the emperor’s belief in “dispelling calamities through translating sūtra” (仰恃佛力，輔成國家) (T52, no. 2120, vol. 3, 840) and the turbulent domestic political situation of the time.

4.7 Concluding Remarks

The seventh and eighth centuries stand as the pinnacle of Buddhist scripture translation in medieval China, representing a golden age of intellectual and cultural growth. During this time, the elite translation model flourished under the guidance of renowned translators like Divākara, Devaprajñā, Śikṣānanda, Yijing, Bodhiruci, and Amoghavajra.

The sustained patronage of emperors from Taizong to Daizong played a vital role in enabling the formation of highly organized translation teams. These activities were characterized by detailed division of labor, rigorous proofreading, and court-appointed oversight. While the model pioneered by Prabhākaramitra and Xuanzang was preserved, it was also refined and enhanced, reflecting a commitment to excellence.

This era witnessed the emergence of new roles, including rhythm keepers responsible for sūtra chanting and officials tasked with reviewing texts for imperial authorization. The scale of operations expanded, involving foreign experts who verified the authenticity and accuracy of translated texts. Translation became deeply intertwined with religious rituals, transcending the mere conversion of words.

The diligent collaboration of these dedicated translators led to the creation of precise translations of invaluable scriptures and treatises, including influential works like the Avataṃsakasūtra, which gained widespread circulation. These translations had a deep cultural impact, profoundly shaping religious practices and scholarship. The remarkable productivity of this period demonstrates the adaptable and resilient translation culture, fostered by ruler support and the dedicated efforts of Buddhist luminaries.

Despite the challenges they encountered, the ingenuity and dedication of Tang-era translators propelled Chinese Buddhism to new heights, allowing for the dissemination of sacred knowledge and wisdom. Their lasting legacy laid strong foundations for the subsequent revival of the translation tradition during the Song Dynasty. This golden age serves as an ongoing inspiration for future generations, imparting wondrous wisdom that continues to illuminate minds in the present day.